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The Clifden Nonpareil (Catocala Fraxini)

This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British Noctuæ. The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and marbled with darker grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI); and the thorax and abdomen are banded with black and greyish blue.

The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine insect, for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen is seen in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of Fraxini command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens from the other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence. With such rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase the foreign specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives – give an exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a stranger to the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled according to their nationalities.

The Red Underwing (Catocala Nupta)

Fig. 176. – The Red Underwing.

The other three members of the family are very similar in appearance, the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of grey, relieved by touches of black and brown; and the hind wings, red or crimson, give the popular names to the species.

The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is common in the southern counties of England, as well as in some of the midland counties; it may be often seen flying by day around willows.

The caterpillar is similar in form to that of Fraxini, and when at rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow (Salix fragilis), sallow (S. alba), poplar (Populus), and plum (Prunus), and is full grown in June.

The Dark Crimson Underwing (Catocala Sponsa)

This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It will be observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind wing is rather broad and sharply bent – an important feature, since it is the most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species and the Light Crimson Underwing (C. Promissa).

The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of Fraxini and Nupta, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning of June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has spun together with silk.

The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in certain oak woods of the southern counties. It is particularly abundant in the New Forest, where scores may be taken in a single night by judicious sugaring.

There yet remain a few small families of the Noctuæ, but we must leave them in order that we may give a proportionate share of our space to the other great division of the larger moths – the Geometræ.

CHAPTER XX
GEOMETRÆ

We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvæ of the present division that suggested the name Geometræ– a term that signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the ground over which they travel in terms of their own length. We have also dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of these caterpillars – peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various families of this important division for a more detailed description.

The Geometræ include nearly three hundred species and sixteen families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and generally rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose with wings erect like the butterflies, and a small number conceal their hind wings after the manner of the Noctuæ.

Family – Uropterygidæ

The Swallow Tail (Uropteryx sambucaria)

Our first family —Uropterygidæ– has only one British representative, and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens and among hedgerows in the south of England. This species is shown on Plate XII (fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified by the conspicuous 'tails' on the hind wings that no written description will be necessary.

The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its colour is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish; and it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly resembles a twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable by the attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest. It fixes itself to a twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with its body standing out at an angle in a perfectly straight posture; but its head is always supported by means of a very slender and almost invisible silk fibre. It feeds on a number of plants and trees, including elder (Sambucus nigra), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), whitethorn (Cratægus oxyacantha), bramble (Rubus fruticosus), honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum), and forget-me-not (Myosotis arvensis). It may be found feeding in the autumn, or hybernating in the crevices of the bark of trees in winter. In April or May it comes out again; and in June, in which month it is full grown, it binds together some fragments of leaves, and forms them into a little swinging hammock in which it changes to a brown chrysalis spotted with black.

Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance, and will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its body right and left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation, such as a puff of wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a furious manner.

Family – Ennomidæ

This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank among the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the Geometræ. Their wings are more or less angulated; and the antennæ are generally pectinated in the males.

The larvæ are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the last species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume when at rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but where the claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as the case may be, are seldom used in walking.

The Brimstone Moth (Rumia luteolata)

As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and bright little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at sunset; and it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer, but is particularly plentiful during the month of June.

The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate XII (fig. 3); but the caterpillar (fig. 25) must receive a passing notice. It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown, or marbled with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has a hump on the back of the seventh segment, and two more on the ninth, and possesses four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn (Cratægus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and the apple (Pyrus Malus), and may be found on these trees throughout the summer.

Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect each year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since both the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission throughout the season.

The Light Emerald (Metrocampa margaritaria)

Fig. 177. – The Light Emerald.

All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with a white band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner side. The fore wings have an additional transverse line just halfway between the former and the base, but this one is not so distinct. It flies in July, and is very widely distributed, and in some parts is very abundant.

The caterpillar feeds in September, and again in May, after hybernation, on several of our forest trees, including the oak (Quercus Robur), elm (Ulmus campestris), birch (Betula alba), and beech (Fagus sylvatica). It is of a dingy olive colour, with a dark dorsal line, on each side of which is a row of white spots; and it has three pairs of claspers.

The Scalloped Oak (Crocallis elinguaria)

This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen flying at dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It is represented in fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennæ of the male are strongly pectinated; those of the female are simple.

The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in spring, feeding on the honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum), whitethorn (Cratægus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), beech (Fagus sylvatica), and various fruit trees. It is full grown in June, when it turns to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves or moss on or near the ground. It is of a greyish-brown or greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a piece of twig.

The August Thorn (Eugonia quercinaria)

Fig. 178. – The August Thorn.

Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented in the accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous yellow, crossed by two nearly parallel lines of dark brown. In order to distinguish between this and one or two similar species it must be observed that both these lines are angulated near the costa, the inner one very sharply so; and between the two is a distinct brown spot near the costal margin. The hind wings are paler, and are crossed by an indistinct darker line. The antennæ of the male are strongly fringed; those of the female are simple.

The moth is very common in August and September, and is readily attracted by lights in the evening.

The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three small humps on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on the twelfth, and one larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak and various other trees during the month of June.

Family – Amphidasydæ

The seven British species of the family Amphidasydæ are generally to be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and the long shaggy hair that covers their thoraces. The antennæ of the males are pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in three cases the latter sex is wingless.

The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are never provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides terminate behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found buried in the soil.

The Brindled Beauty (Biston hirtaria)

Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen in abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns. In fact, so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in the neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the name of the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of Plate XII, and the female may be distinguished from it by her simple antennæ and larger body.

The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple brown and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of the second segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two little bright yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by night on lime (Tilia vulgaris), elm (Ulmus campestris), and various fruit trees, and often appears in such numbers that the foliage is almost completely devoured. During the daytime it may be seen resting on the bark, almost invariably fixed longitudinally on the trunk, where it looks like a natural ridge of the bark which it so closely resembles in colour. It may be found in June and July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis at the foot of its tree, just below the surface of the soil.

The Peppered Moth (Amphidasys betularia)

Fig. 179. – The Peppered Moth.

Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all over with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June, later than any other species of the family, and may generally be found on fences and tree trunks during the day.

The colour of the caterpillar is very variable – drab, grey, green, or brown; but it may be known by the deep notch in the middle of the head, and the arrangement of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish or whitish projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September on a large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to undergo its change to the chrysalis.

Family – Boarmiidæ

In the next family —Boarmiidæ– there are about twenty British members, most of which are very pretty moths. They differ generally from the last family in that their bodies are more slender, and although some of them bear a resemblance to species of the family Ennomidæ, their wings are not angulated. In several cases the fore and hind wings are both similarly marked, a feature very uncommon with moths.

The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth and twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The pupæ are to be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss, or beneath the soil.

The Waved Umber (Hemerophila abruptaria)

The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved Umber, shown in fig. 6 of Plate XII. Like many other Geometræ, it rests on fences and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so that all four are displayed. It is on the wing in May and early June, and again in August, and often frequents our gardens at dusk.

The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the front of the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet (Ligustrum vulgare) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens, and probably also on the dog rose (Rosa canina). When full grown it spins a silken cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and there undergoes its metamorphoses.

The Willow Beauty (Boarmia gemmaria)

Fig. 180. – The Willow Beauty.

Our second example of the Boarmiidæ is the Willow Beauty, the male of which species is here illustrated. Its wings are brownish grey, marked with dark brown lines and streaks. The female is generally larger than the male, and has simple antennæ. The moth is abundant throughout England, and may be seen generally resting on fences and trees in June and July.

The ground colour of the caterpillar is much the same as that of the moth, and is marked with a similar darker tint. It has a yellowish line along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish twig. It feeds on the oak (Quercus Robur), Birch (Betula alba), ivy (Hedera Helix), and other trees, and may be found in September and October.

Family – Geometridæ

The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all of which have green wings, and are popularly known as the 'Emeralds.' In most cases the male may be distinguished by its pectinated antennæ.

There is no general characteristic by which we may know all the larvæ, but some have the head deeply notched.

The Large Emerald (Geometra papilionaria)

Fig. 181. – The Large Emerald.

This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two inches when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green, with whitish bands and spots, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving.

The moth is out in July, and is common in most parts of England.

The caterpillar feeds on birch (Betula alba), beech (Fagus sylvatica) and hazel (Corylus avellana) in the autumn, and hybernates while still young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in June, when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.

The Common Emerald (Hemithea strigata)

Fig. 182. – The Common Emerald.

One of the commonest of the Emeralds is Strigata, which may be found in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in some localities in Scotland and Ireland. Its wings are of a dull green colour, the front pair being slightly scalloped on the hind margin, and crossed by indistinct pale lines; and the hind pair are both scalloped and angled and crossed in the middle by a transverse pale line. The fringe is white, dotted with dull reddish brown.

The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and fourth segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (Quercus Robur) and whitethorn (Cratægus oxyacantha), and may be found in June.

Family – Ephyridæ

The Maiden's Blush (Zonosoma punctaria)

The family Ephyridæ contains only six British species, chiefly remarkable for the fact that their pupæ generally resemble those of butterflies.

We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so called on account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each fore wing. It is represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is moderately common, occurring more or less in all parts of England, as well as certain localities in the sister countries. It is a double-brooded moth, and may be caught in May and August.

The caterpillar feeds on oak (Quercus Robur), from which it may be obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green or tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides.

Family – Acidaliidæ

The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of small size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not in the least angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind pair are slightly angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind wings are similarly marked. The antennæ are simple in the females, and generally only slightly ciliated in the males.

The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and feed principally on low plants. The pupæ are to be found in loose cocoons among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.

We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive family.

The Lace Border (Acidalia ornata)

Fig. 183. – The Lace Border.

The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the hind margin with a beautiful lace-like border. This border consists of delicate black and dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore wing, two light brown blotches, one near the middle and the other in the anal angle. It is abundant in England, particularly in chalky districts, but does not seem to extend into Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from June to August.

The caterpillar feeds on thyme (Thymus Serpyllum) and marjoram (Origanum vulgare).

The Riband Wave (A. aversata)

Fig. 184. – The Riband Wave.

All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous grey. The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines, and the hind wings by two. The space between the two outer lines of the fore wing and that between the lines of the hind wing are usually filled in with a greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband' from which the popular name of the insect is derived; and when this is the case the lines which border the riband are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside the second line of the fore wings, near the costa, is a small but conspicuous brown spot.

The moth flies in June and July, and is common in all parts.

The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen, which are grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the surface of the body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It feeds on various low plants, including the meadow sweet (Spiræa ulmaria), water avens (Geum rivale), common avens (G. urbanum), and knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare), during April and May.

The Blood-vein (Timandra amataria)

Our last example of the Acidaliidæ is the Blood-vein, which is common in most parts of England in June and July.

Fig. 185. – The Blood-vein.

Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted with darker grey, and crossed by an oblique red streak which runs from the tip of the fore wing to near the inner margin of the hind wing. A slender dark and wavy line lies outside this one, parallel with it in the hind wing, but meeting it near the tip of the fore wing.

The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes. It feeds in the autumn on dock (Rumex), sorrel (R. acetosa), and knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare).

Family – Caberidæ

Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British portion of the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale grey, with light markings, and without angles. The moths are to be caught with the net at dusk, or they may be seen on fences and tree trunks during the day, with their wings fully extended and applied closely to the surface on which they rest.

The larvæ, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to the chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.

The Common Wave (Cabera exanthemata)

Fig. 186. – The Common Wave.

The first of our two examples of this small family is the Common Wave, the wings of which are pale grey, almost white, dusted all over with small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed by three parallel and equidistant darker transverse lines, and the hind pair by two. The male may be distinguished by its ciliated antennæ.

The caterpillar is yellow or greenish yellow, with hinder segments slightly swollen. It feeds during the latter part of the summer on sallows (Salix caprea and S. cinerea) and alder (Alnus glutinosa), and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen leaves. In this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect emerging in May or June.

This species is very abundant in most parts.

The Clouded Silver (Bapta temerata)

Fig. 187. – The Clouded Silver.

The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which are white, and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey. On the hind margin of the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row of black crescent-shaped spots; and on the inner side of the cloudings is a waved transverse band. In the centre of the same wings there is a very distinct dark spot.

This moth is not so common as the last, but is widely distributed. It flies in May and June.

The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row of orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back. It feeds in the autumn on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and the wild cherry (P. Avium), and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a light silken cocoon.

Family – Macariidæ

The V Moth (Halia Vauaria)

The family Macariidæ contains only five British species, four of which have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into an angle, and the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less extent.

Fig. 188. – The V Moth.

Our only example is the V Moth, so called from the conspicuous V-shaped blackish mark on the middle of the costa of the fore wings. The ground colour of all the wings is grey, with a delicate violet tinge. There are other dark markings in addition to the one mentioned above, and the arrangement of these may be seen in the woodcut.

This species is very common in all parts, and flies at about midsummer.

The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green, and is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series of yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body is covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in May on gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis in a web between the leaves.

Family – Fidoniidæ

We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of flying more or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying moths, these are mostly prettily marked, and are consequently often mistaken by the uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them are to be found on heaths, downs, and open fields; but one – the Bordered White – is met with only in fir woods.

The wings are not angulated, and the antennæ of the males are pectinated.

The larvæ are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little horns on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most cases they pupate beneath the surface of the soil.

The Common Heath (Ematurga atomaria)

Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is the Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that they are disturbed at almost every footstep.

Fig. 189. – The Common Heath.

The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish grey, and that of the female greyish white. In both cases the wings are crossed by irregular dark brown bands. The fringe is barred alternately with white and dark brown, and the whole of the ground tint between the above-mentioned bands is thickly dotted with dark brown. The female is generally smaller than the male.

The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally reddish brown, ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light line along the spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the back. It feeds on trefoils (Lotus corniculatus and L. pilosus) and various other plants that grow on heaths.

The Bordered White (Bupalus piniaria)

Fig. 190. – The Bordered White – Male.

The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white and dark brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown in fig. 190. The female is very different in general appearance. Her wings are of an almost uniform orange or yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings are darker near the tip, and there is generally a darker transverse band across the centre.

The male may often be seen flying in the sunshine among the branches of fir trees during May and June, but his mate is rather less active, and is generally to be secured by beating the branches.

The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris).

Family – Zerenidæ

The Currant Moth (Abraxas grossulariata)

Fig. 191. – The Currant Moth.

The family Zerenidæ contains only four British moths, and of these we select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is exceedingly common everywhere, and on account of its general brightness of appearance, and also of its diurnal habits, it is often taken for a butterfly. The ground colour of the wings is creamy white, with a yellow transverse band, and a yellow blotch at the base; and the whole surface is more or less blotched with black.

From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in abundance in our gardens, wherever currant bushes exist, flying about both during the sunshine and at dusk, with rather a heavy movement.

The caterpillar is white, with a yellow line along the spiracles, and numerous black dots. There are, in addition to the dots, two large black blotches on the back of each segment. It feeds during May on currant and gooseberry bushes, also on the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). About the end of May it spins a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy chrysalis of a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).

Family – Hyberniidæ

Passing over the family Ligiidæ, which contains only one British moth, the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but interesting family, Hyberniidæ.

Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the bleakest months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and November, and even remain with us up to Christmas. The others follow closely on them, and may be seen from January to March.

The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and without angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly wingless. In three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex, so that they look more like spiders than moths.

The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and all feed on the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state under the ground.

The Spring Usher (Hybernia leucophæaria)

Fig. 192. – The Spring Usher.

Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be seen in abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of the trees, or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In colour it is very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground marbled and dotted with dark brown, but in some the fore wings are almost entirely dark brown with the exception of a transverse central bar. The female has only the slightest rudiments of wings.

The caterpillar feeds on the young buds and leaves of the oak (Quercus Robur) and sycamore (Acer Pseudoplatanus), concealing itself among the small leaves which it has spun together. It is full grown in June, when it changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the ground, and remains here throughout the summer and part of the following winter.

The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale green with white markings.

The Mottled Umber (Hybernia defoliaria)

This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It is very common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf, generally appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till November. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the male, but in some specimens the four wings are all of one uniform reddish-brown colour, evenly dotted all over with a darker tint. The female is quite wingless.

The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and brown. The back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below this is a broad and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each segment. The spiracles are white. It feeds during spring on oak (Quercus Robur), whitethorn (Cratægus oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), and other trees. When disturbed it always allows itself to fall for a foot or two, and then remains swinging at the end of a silken fibre till danger is over, or hunger recalls it to its food. It changes to a chrysalis on the ground about the middle of June.

The March Moth (Anisopteryx æscularia)

Fig. 193. – The March Moth.

This is another common moth, and should be looked for during March and April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods. The fore wings are of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base, and crossed by a pale wavy line. The hind wings are lighter, with a central dark spot. But this description applies to the male only, for the female is wingless, and may be known by the tuft of hair that tips the abdomen.