Buch lesen: «Plain English», Seite 19
PLAIN ENGLISH
LESSON 19
Dear Comrade:
In this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our vocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins to talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that describe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions until it begins to relate ideas.
The relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into thoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of relation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas. The measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of our understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it all.
So words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own lives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the dictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which it stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by sheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could be related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words become alive to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of the thing for which the word stands.
So let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word and understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has become a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just what each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use them in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life.
Do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding their meaning. Study the poem Abou Ben Adhem in this week's lesson. After you have read it over a number of times, close the book and rewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your version with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions and decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own words. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of this poem.
Exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop the power of expression. No power can come in any department of life without effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great writers have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he needed to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of the English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and earnest work.
Yours for Education,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.
AN IMPORTANT WORD
309. Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A great machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers. These may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts. These bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great wheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is possible until this little bolt has been replaced.
So in our sentence building, the preposition is the bolt that joins words together. The importance of the preposition in a language increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly and express itself more accurately.
We found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change the entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use of a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing testimony to the fact whether you saw him within the house, or without the house; or before dark, or after dark.
310. The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use it to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance, that we can use it:
First, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for example:
The fearless man demands his rights.
The man without fear demands his rights.
Second, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example:
We want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor.
We want to possess in peace the fruits of our labor.
Third, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as, for example, They are fighting for their country. There is no single word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the phrase, for their country.
311. So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, the prepositional phrase. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single adjective or adverb.
If I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an expression would be impossible without that little preposition in. By the use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship between the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is under the tree, or in the tree, or over the tree, or flying around the tree, or near the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can express accurately the relationship that exists between the bird and the tree.
Exercise 1
Look up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may be expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, man and house. You may say:
The man went around the house.
The man went about the house.
The man went over the house.
The man went under the house.
The man went without the house.
The man went into the house.
The man went by the house.
The man went beyond the house.
The man went to the house.
A GOVERNING WORD
312. The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For example, in the sentence given above, I see the bird in the tree, the preposition in shows the relationship between bird and tree, and makes of tree a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than if we used the word tree as an adjective. For we do not mean that we see a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the preposition in, we have used tree as a modifying word.
But the preposition in also governs the form of the word that follows it. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or object, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But pronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use a pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are seven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition, always use one of these object forms.
He gave it to me.
Give it to him.
Give it to her.
Add this to it.
Bring it to us.
I will give it to you.
He gave it to them.
313. Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following a preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and interrogative pronoun "who." The object form is "whom." For example:
To whom will you go?
This is the man to whom I wrote.
For whom are you looking?
Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice?
Where to Put the Preposition
314. The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason it was given its name, preposition, meaning to place before. Sometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun. With these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the sentence. For example:
This is the book about which I was speaking; or, This is the book which I was speaking about.
To whom shall I give this letter; or, Who shall I give this letter to?
The sentence, To whom shall I give this letter, is grammatically correct; but in ordinary usage we use the form, Who shall I give this letter to?
While the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a preposition—so that the use of to whom is grammatically correct—in common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so far away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use common. For example, instead of saying, For whom is this letter? we say, Who is this letter for?
315. In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the preposition. For example:
"The interlacing boughs between
Shadows dark and sunlight sheen,
Alternate, come and go."
Boughs is here the object of the preposition between, but in this poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also in the following:
"The unseen mermaid's pearly song,
Comes bubbling up the weeds among."
"Forever panting and forever young,
All breathing human passion far beyond."
316. After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often thrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example:
What men are the people talking about?
Which person did you write to?
With these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its object, as:
We were astonished at the news.
He arose from his sleep.
POSSESSIVE PHRASES
317. Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns. You will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use of the apostrophe and s. But instead of using the possessive forms of the name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally denote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, The arm of the chair, instead of, The chair's arm; or, The roof of the house, instead of, The house's roof.
318. We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form would give an awkward construction. As, for example: Jesus' sayings. So many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say instead, The sayings of Jesus.
319. We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In many words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can readily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the apostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is exactly the same. As, for example:
The lady's hats.
The ladies' hats.
Written out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am speaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance of the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you can not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a phrase and say, The hats of the lady; or, The hats of the ladies. Then the meaning is entirely clear.
320. Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this case it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example, This is my comrade's father's book. This is an awkward construction. Say instead, This is the book belonging to my comrade's father.
321. Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with of does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples and see if there is not a difference in meaning:
The history of Wilson is interesting.
Wilson's history is interesting.
In the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is interesting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or written by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the meaning. The phrase of Wilson used in the first example does not indicate possession.
Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences:
The picture of Millet is good.
Millet's picture is good.
The statue of Rodin stands in the park.
Rodin's statue stands in the park.
Would you say:
The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention?
The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction?
The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege?
The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat?
COMMON ERRORS
322. Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant words, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid.
Notice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation which you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the following cautions:
1. Do not use prepositions needlessly. We often throw a preposition in at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence, and which we should not use again. The little preposition at is most frequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear people use such phrases as:
At which store do you trade at?
At what corner did you stop at?
The last at is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and that is enough. We also use at and to at the close of sentences beginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary. For example, we say:
Where did you go to?
Where did you stop at?
Where am I at?
The correct form of these sentences is:
Where did you go?
Where did you stop?
Where am I?
Do not use at and to in this way, they are entirely superfluous and give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence with a preposition in this way.
2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs. For example, we often say:
The idea is no use to me.
We should say, The idea is of no use to me.
I was home yesterday.
We should say, I was at home yesterday.
3. Do not use the preposition of with a verb that requires an object. The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the preposition. As, for example:
He does not remember of seeing you.
Do you approve of his action?
Remember and approve are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, and the nouns seeing and action are the objects of the incomplete verbs remember and approve. The preposition of is entirely superfluous. The sentences should read:
He does not remember seeing you.
Do you approve his action?
Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition of in this way are the verbs accept and recollect. As, for example:
Will you accept of this kindness?
Will you try to recollect of it?
These sentences should read:
Will you accept this kindness?
Will you try to recollect it?
The Correct Preposition
323. We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of prepositions. For example, the preposition between refers to two objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, thus:
We settled the quarrel between the two men.
This is correct, but it is incorrect to say:
We settled the quarrel between the members of the Union.
We cannot settle a quarrel between a dozen people. When there are more than two, use the word among. We can perhaps attempt to settle a quarrel among a dozen people. Between refers to two objects, among refers to more than two. For example:
Divide the work between the two men.
Divide the work among twenty men.
324. Do not confuse the use of in and into. When entrance is denoted use into. As, for example:
He came into the room.
He got into the auto.
Often the use of in will give an entirely different meaning to the sentence. For example:
He ran in the water.
He ran into the water.
The man acted as our guide in the city.
The man acted as our guide into the city.
The horse ran in the pasture.
The horse ran into the pasture.
325. Do not use below and under to mean less or fewer in regard to an amount or number. Below and under have reference to place only. It is correct to say:
He went under the bridge.
He came out below the falls.
But it is incorrect to say:
The price is below cost.
There were under fifty present.
Say instead:
The price is less than cost.
There were fewer than fifty present.
326. Do not misuse over and above. These prepositions have reference only to place. They are incorrectly used to mean more than or greater than.
It is correct to say:
The boat anchored above the landing.
He flew over the city.
It is incorrect to say:
He bought above a hundred acres.
He lives over a mile from here.
These sentences should be:
He bought more than a hundred acres.
He lives more than a mile from here.
THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS
327. In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words:
Adapt. With adapt we can use either the preposition to or for. For example; we adapt ourselves to circumstances, that is, we accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted for a certain purpose.
Agree. We can use the prepositions with and to with the verb agree, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree with you about a certain matter; and, We agree to the proposal which you make.
Ask. We ask a favor of a person. We ask a friend for a favor. We ask about some one or thing that we wish to hear about.
Charge. There are several prepositions we can use with the verb charge. Your grocer charges you for the things that you buy. If you run an account you are charged with a certain amount. These things are charged to you; but in war the enemy charges upon you.
Compare. One thing is compared with another in quality, but it is compared to another when we are using the comparison for an illustration.
Complain. We make complaint to the manager of the things we do not like.
Comply. We comply with the request of another, but he does a thing in compliance with that request. Do not use the preposition to with compliance.
Correspond. With correspond, we use either the preposition with or to. For example, I may correspond with you, meaning that I communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds to another, meaning that it is like the other.
Disgust. We are disgusted with our friends sometimes at the things which they do. We are disgusted with people and at things.
Reconcile. With reconcile, we use either the preposition with or to. For example, I may become reconciled with you; that is, I am restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile one thing to another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another.
Taste. We have a taste for music, art or literature, but we enjoy the taste of good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five senses, use the preposition of, but when you use it to mean intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition for.
Exercise 2
Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem:
THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT
When the world was formed and the morning stars
Upon their paths were sent,
The loftiest-browed of the angels was made
The Angel of Discontent.
And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills,
Where the crested serpents sting,
And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls,
And he told of better things.
And he led them forth to the towered town,
And forth to the fields of corn,
And told of the ampler work ahead,
For which his race was born.
And he whispers to men of those hills he sees
In the blush of the misty west;
And they look to the heights of his lifted eye—
And they hate the name of rest.
In the light of that eye does the slave behold
A hope that is high and brave;
And the madness of war comes into his blood—
For he knows himself a slave.
The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye
March with victorious songs;
For the strength of the right comes into their hearts
When they behold their wrongs.
'Tis by the light of that lifted eye
That error's mists are rent;
A guide to the table-lands of Truth
Is the Angel of Discontent.
And still he looks with his lifted eye,
And his glance is far away,
On a light that shines on the glimmering hills
Of a diviner day.
—Sam Walter Foss.
