Buch lesen: «The Tao of Physics»
FRITJOF CAPRA
The Tao of Physics
An exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism
I dedicate this book to
Ali Akbar Khan
Carlos Castaneda
Geoffrey Chew
John Coltrane
Werner Heisenberg
Krishnamurti
Liu Hsiu Ch’i
Phiroz Mehta
Jerry Shesko
Bobby Smith
Maria Teuffenbach
Alan Watts
for helping me to find my path
and to Jacqueline
who has travelled with me
on this path
most of the time.
Contents
Preface
Preface to the Second Edition
I The Way of Physics
Chapter 1 Modern Physics—A Path with a Heart?
Chapter 2 Knowing and Seeing
Chapter 3 Beyond Language
Chapter 4 The New Physics
II The Way of Eastern Mysticism
Chapter 5 Hinduism
Chapter 6 Buddhism
Chapter 7 Chinese Thought
Chapter 8 Taosim
Chapter 9 Zen
III The Parallels
Chapter 10 The Unity of All Things
Chapter 11 Beyond the World of Opposites
Chapter 12 Space-time
Chapter 13 The Dynamic Universe
Chapter 14 Emptiness and Form
Chapter 15 The Cosmic Dance
Chapter 16 Quark Symmetries—A New Koan?
Chapter 17 Patterns of Change
Chapter 18 Interpenetration
Epilogue
The New Physics Revisited Afterword to the Second Edition
The Future of the New Physics Afterword to the Third Edition
Notes
Bibliography
Index
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Also by Fritjof Capra
Copyright
About the Publisher
It is probably true quite generally that in the history of human thinking the most fruitful developments frequently take place at those points where two different lines of thought meet. These lines may have their roots in quite different parts of human culture, in different times or different cultural environments or different religious traditions: hence if they actually meet, that is, if they are at least so much related to each other that a real interaction can take place, then one may hope that new and interesting developments may follow.
Werner Heisenberg
Preface
Five years ago, I had a beautiful experience which set me on a road that has led to the writing of this book. I was sitting by the ocean one late summer afternoon, watching the waves rolling in and feeling the rhythm of my breathing when I suddenly became aware of my whole environment as being engaged in a gigantic cosmic dance. Being a physicist, I knew that the sand, rocks, water and air around me were made of vibrating molecules and atoms, and that these consisted of particles which interacted with one another by creating and destroying other particles. I knew also that the Earth’s atmosphere was continually bombarded by showers of ‘cosmic rays’, particles of high energy undergoing multiple collisions as they penetrated the air. All this was familiar to me from my research in high-energy physics, but until that moment I had only experienced it through graphs, diagrams and mathematical theories. As I sat on that beach my former experiences came to life; I ‘saw’ cascades of energy coming down from outer space, in which particles were created and destroyed in rhythmic pulses; I ‘saw’ the atoms of the elements and those of my body participating in this cosmic dance of energy; I felt its rhythm and I ‘heard’ its sound, and at that moment I knew that this was the Dance of Shiva, the Lord of Dancers worshipped by the Hindus.
I had gone through a long training in theoretical physics and had done several years of research. At the same time, I had become very interested in Eastern mysticism and had begun to see the parallels to modern physics. I was particularly attracted to the puzzling aspects of Zen which reminded me of the puzzles in quantum theory. At first, however, relating the two was a purely intellectual exercise. To overcome the gap between rational, analytical thinking and the meditative experience of mystical truth, was, and still is, very difficult for me.
In the beginning I was helped on my way by ‘power plants’ which showed me how the mind can flow freely; how spiritual insights come on their own, without any effort, emerging from the depth of consciousness. I remember the first such experience. Coming, as it did, after years of detailed analytical thinking it was so overwhelming that I burst into tears, at the same time, not unlike Castaneda, pouring out my impressions on to a piece of paper.
Later came the experience of the Dance of Shiva which I have tried to capture in the photomontage shown in Plate 7. It was followed by many similar experiences which helped me gradually to realize that a consistent view of the world is beginning to emerge from modern physics which is harmonious with ancient Eastern wisdom. I took many notes over the years, and wrote a few articles about the parallels I kept discovering, until I finally summarized my experiences in the present book.
This book is intended for the general reader with an interest in Eastern mysticism who need not necessarily know anything about physics. I have tried to present the main concepts and theories of modern physics without any mathematics and in non-technical language, although a few paragraphs may still appear difficult to the layperson at first reading. The technical terms I had to introduce are all defined where they appear for the first time and are listed in the index at the end of the book.
I also hope to find among my readers many physicists with an interest in the philosophical aspects of physics, who have as yet not come in contact with the religious philosophies of the East. They will find that Eastern mysticism provides a consistent and beautiful philosophical framework which can accommodate our most advanced theories of the physical world.
As far as the contents of the book are concerned, the reader may feel a certain lack of balance between the presentation of scientific and mystical thought. Throughout the book, his or her understanding of physics should progress steadily, but a comparable progression in the understanding of Eastern mysticism may not occur. This seems unavoidable, as mysticism is, above all, an experience that cannot be learned from books. A deeper understanding of any mystical tradition can only be felt when one decides to become actively involved in it. All I can hope to do is to generate the feeling that such an involvement would be highly rewarding.
During the writing of this book, my own understanding of Eastern thought has deepened considerably. For this I am indebted to two men who come from the East. I am profoundly grateful to Phiroz Mehta for opening my eyes to many aspects of Indian mysticism, and to my T’ai Chi master Liu Hsiu Ch’i for introducing me to living Taoism.
It is impossible to mention the names of everyone—scientists, artists, students, and friends—who have helped me formulate my ideas in stimulating discussions. I feel, however, that I owe special thanks to Graham Alexander, Jonathan Ashmore, Stratford Caldecott, Lyn Gambles, Sonia Newby, Ray Rivers, Joël Scherk, George Sudarshan, and—last but not least—Ryan Thomas.
Finally, I am indebted to Mrs Pauly Bauer-Ynnhof of Vienna for her generous financial support at a time when it was needed most.
London, December 1974 Fritjof Capra
Preface to the Second Edition
This book was first published seven years ago, and it originated in an experience, as described in the preceding preface, that now lies more than ten years in the past. It seems thus appropriate that I should say a few words to the readers of this new edition about the many things that have happened in those years—to the book, to physics, and to myself.
When I discovered the parallels between the world views of physicists and mystics, which had been hinted at before but never thoroughly explored, I had the strong feeling that I was merely uncovering something that was quite obvious and would be common knowledge in the future; and sometimes, while writing The Tao of Physics, I even felt that it was being written through me, rather than by me. The subsequent events have confirmed these feelings. The book has been received enthusiastically in the United Kingdom and the United States. Though it had only minimal promotion or advertising, it spread rapidly by word of mouth and is now available, or being published, in a dozen editions around the world.
The reaction of the scientific community, predictably, has been more cautious; but there, too, the interest in the broader implications of twentieth-century physics is increasing. The reluctance of modern scientists to accept the profound similarities between their concepts and those of mystics is not surprising, since mysticism—at least in the West—has traditionally been associated, quite erroneously, with things vague, mysterious, and highly unscientific. Fortunately, this attitude is now changing. As Eastern thought has begun to interest a significant number of people and meditation is no longer viewed with ridicule or suspicion, mysticism is being taken seriously even within the scientific community.
The success of The Tao of Physics has had a strong impact on my life. During the past years, I have travelled extensively, lecturing to professional and lay audiences and discussing the implications of the ‘new physics’ with men and women from all walks of life. These discussions have helped me tremendously in understanding the broader cultural context of the strong interest in Eastern mysticism that arose in the West during the last twenty years. I now see this interest as part of a much larger trend which attempts to counteract a profound imbalance in our culture—in our thoughts and feelings, our values and attitudes, and our social and political structures. I have found the Chinese terminology of yin and yang very useful to describe this cultural imbalance. Our culture has consistently favoured yang, or masculine, values and attitudes, and has neglected their complementary yin, or feminine, counterparts. We have favoured self-assertion over integration, analysis over synthesis, rational knowledge over intuitive wisdom, science over religion, competition over cooperation, expansion over conservation, and so on. This one-sided development has now reached a highly alarming stage; a crisis of social, ecological, moral and spiritual dimensions.
However, we are witnessing, at the same time, the beginning of a tremendous evolutionary movement that seems to illustrate the ancient Chinese saying that ‘the yang, having reached its climax, retreats in favour of the yin.’ The 1960s and 1970s have generated a whole series of social movements which all seem to go in the same direction. The rising concern with ecology, the strong interest in mysticism, the growing feminist awareness, and the rediscovery of holistic approaches to health and healing are all manifestations of the same evolutionary trend. They all counteract the overemphasis of rational, masculine attitudes and values, and attempt to regain a balance between the masculine and feminine sides of human nature. Thus, the awareness of the profound harmony between the world view of modern physics and the views of Eastern mysticism now appears as an integral part of a much larger cultural transformation, leading to the emergence of a new vision of reality that will require a fundamental change in our thoughts, perceptions and values. In my second book, The Turning Point, I have explored the various aspects and implications of this cultural transformation.
The fact that the current changes in our value system will affect many of our sciences may seem surprising to those who believe in an objective, value-free science. It is, however, one of the important implications of the new physics. Heisenberg’s contributions to quantum theory, which I discuss in great detail in this book, imply clearly that the classical ideal of scientific objectivity can no longer be maintained, and thus modern physics is also challenging the myth of a value-free science. The patterns scientists observe in nature are intimately connected with the patterns of their minds; with their concepts, thoughts and values. Hence, the scientific results they obtain and the technological applications they investigate will be conditioned by their frame of mind. Although much of their detailed research will not depend explicitly on their value system, the larger framework within which this research is pursued will never be value free. Scientists, therefore, are responsible for their research not only intellectually but also morally.
From this point of view, the connection between physics and mysticism is not only very interesting but also extremely important. It shows that the results of modern physics have opened up two very different paths for scientists to pursue. They may lead us—to put it in extreme terms—to the Buddha or to the Bomb, and it is up to each scientist to decide which path to take. It seems to me that at a time when close to half of our scientists and engineers work for the military, wasting an enormous potential of human ingenuity and creativity by developing ever more sophisticated means of total destruction, the path of the Buddha, the ‘path with a heart’, cannot be overemphasized.
The present edition of this book has been updated by including results from the most recent research in subatomic physics. I have done this by slightly changing certain passages in the text to make them more consistent with the new research, and by adding a new section at the end of the book, entitled The New Physics Revisited’, in which the most important new developments in subatomic physics are described in some detail. It has been very gratifying for me that none of these recent developments has invalidated anything I wrote seven years ago. In fact, most of them were anticipated in the original edition. This has confirmed the strong belief that motivated me to write the book—that the basic themes which I use in my comparison between physics and mysticism will be enforced, rather than invalidated, by future research.
Moreover, I now feel on much firmer ground with my thesis because the parallels to Eastern mysticism are appearing not only in physics but also in biology, psychology and other sciences. In studying the relationships between physics and those sciences, I have found that a natural extension of the concepts of modern physics to other fields is provided by the framework of systems theory. The exploration of systems concepts in biology, medicine, psychology, and in the social sciences, which I have undertaken in The Turning Point, has shown me that the systems approach strongly enforces the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism. In addition, the new systems biology and psychology point to other similarities with mystical thought that lie outside the subject matter of physics. Those discussed in my second book include certain ideas about free will, death and birth, and the nature of life, mind, consciousness and evolution. The profound harmony between these concepts, as expressed in systems language, and the corresponding ideas in Eastern mysticism, is impressive evidence for my claim that the philosophy of mystical traditions, also known as the ‘perennial philosophy’, provides the most consistent philosophical background to our modern scientific theories.
Berkeley, June 1982 Fritjof Capra
I The Way of Physics
Chapter 1 Modern Physics – A Path with a Heart?
Any path is only a path, and there is no affront, to oneself or to others, in dropping it if that is what your heart tells you … Look at every path closely and deliberately. Try it as many times as you think necessary. Then ask yourself, and yourself alone, one question … Does this path have a heart? If it does, the path is good; if it doesn’t it is of no use.
Carlos Castaneda, The Teachings of Don Juan
Modern physics has had a profound influence on almost all aspects of human society. It has become the basis of natural science, and the combination of natural and technical science has fundamentally changed the conditions of life on our earth, both in beneficial and detrimental ways. Today, there is hardly an industry that does not make use of the results of atomic physics, and the influence these have had on the political structure of the world through their application to atomic weaponry is well known. However, the influence of modern physics goes beyond technology. It extends to the realm of thought and culture where it has led to a deep revision in our conception of the universe and of our relation to it. The exploration of the atomic and subatomic world in the twentieth century has revealed an unsuspected limitation of classical ideas, and has necessitated a radical revision of many of our basic concepts. The concept of matter in subatomic physics, for example, is totally different from the traditional idea of a material substance in classical physics. The same is true for concepts like space, time, or cause and effect. These concepts, however, are fundamental to our outlook on the world around us and with their radical transformation our whole world view has begun to change.
These changes, brought about by modern physics, have been widely discussed by physicists and by philosphers over the past decades, but very seldom has it been realized that they all seem to lead in the same direction, towards a view of the world which is very similar to the views held in Eastern mysticism. The concepts of modern physics often show surprising parallels to the ideas expressed in the religious philosophies of the Far East. Although these parallels have not, as yet, been discussed extensively, they have been noticed by some of the great physicists of our century when they came in contact with Far Eastern culture during their lecture tours to India, China and Japan. The following three quotations serve as examples:
The general notions about human understanding … which are illustrated by discoveries in atomic physics are not in the nature of things wholly unfamiliar, wholly unheard of, or new. Even in our own culture they have a history, and in Buddhist and Hindu thought a more considerable and central place. What we shall find is an exemplification, an encouragement, and a refinement of old wisdom.1
Julius Robert Oppenheimer
For a parallel to the lesson of atomic theory … [we must turn] to those kinds of epistemological problems with which already thinkers like the Buddha and Lao Tzu have been confronted, when trying to harmonize our position as spectators and actors in the great drama of existence.2
Niels Bohr
The great scientific contribution in theoretical physics that has come from Japan since the last war may be an indication of a certain relationship between philosophical ideas in the tradition of the Far East and the philosophical substance of quantum theory.3
Werner Heisenberg
The purpose of this book is to explore this relationship between the concepts of modern physics and the basic ideas in the philosophical and religious traditions of the Far East. We shall see how the two foundations of twentieth-century physics—quantum theory and relativity theory—both force us to see the world very much in the way a Hindu, Buddhist or Taoist sees it, and how this similarity strengthens when we look at the recent attempts to combine these two theories in order to describe the phenomena of the submicroscopic world: the properties and interactions of the subatomic particles of which all matter is made. Here the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism are most striking and we shall often encounter statements where it is almost impossible to say whether they have been made by physicists or by Eastern mystics.
When I refer to ‘Eastern mysticism’, I mean the religious philosophies of Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism. Although these comprise a vast number of subtly interwoven spiritual disciplines and philosophical systems, the basic features of their world view are the same. This view is not limited to the East, but can be found to some degree in all mystically oriented philosophies. The argument of this book could therefore be phrased more generally, by saying that modern physics leads us to a view of the world which is very similar to the views held by mystics of all ages and traditions. Mystical traditions are present in all religions, and mystical elements can be found in many schools of Western philosophy. The parallels to modern physics appear not only in the Vedas of Hinduism, in the I Ching, or in the Buddhist sutras, but also in the fragments of Heraclitus, in the Sufism of Ibn Arabi, or in the teachings of the Yaqui sorcerer Don Juan. The difference between Eastern and Western mysticism is that mystical schools have always played a marginal role in the West, whereas they constitute the mainstream of Eastern philosophical and religious thought. I shall therefore, for the sake of simplicity, talk about the ‘Eastern world view’ and shall only occasionally mention other sources of mystical thought.
If physics leads us today to a world view which is essentially mystical, it returns, in a way, to its beginning 2,500 years ago. It is interesting to follow the evolution of Western science along its spiral path, starting from the mystical philosophies of the early Creeks, rising and unfolding in an impressive development of intellectual thought that increasingly turned away from its mystical origins to develop a world view which is in sharp contrast to that of the Far East. In its most recent stages, Western science is finally overcoming this view and coming back to those of the early Creek and the Eastern philosophies. This time, however, it is not only based on intuition, but also on experiments of great precision and sophistication, and on a rigorous and consistent mathematical formalism.
The roots of physics, as of all Western science, are to be found in the first period of Creek philosophy in the sixth century B.C., in a culture where science, philosophy and religion were not separated. The sages of the Milesian school in Ionia were not concerned with such distinctions. Their aim was to discover the essential nature, or real constitution, of things which they called ‘physis’. The term ‘physics’ is derived from this Greek word and meant therefore, originally, the endeavour of seeing the essential nature of all things.
This, of course, is also the central aim of all mystics, and the philosophy of the Milesian school did indeed have a strong mystical flavour. The Milesians were called ‘hylozoists’, or ‘those who think matter is alive’, by the later Greeks, because they saw no distinction between animate and inanimate, spirit and matter. In fact, they did not even have a word for matter, since they saw all forms of existence as manifestations of the ‘physis’, endowed with life and spirituality. Thus Thales declared all things to be full of gods and Anaximander saw the universe as a kind of organism which was supported by ‘pneuma’, the cosmic breath, in the same way as the human body is supported by air.
The monistic and organic view of the Milesians was very close to that of ancient fndian and Chinese philosophy, and the parallels to Eastern thought are even stronger in the philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus. Heraclitus believed in a world of perpetual change, of eternal ‘Becoming’. For him, all static Being was based on deception and his universal principle was fire, a symbol for the continuous flow and change of all things. Heraclitus taught that all changes in the world arise from the dynamic and cyclic interplay of opposites and he saw any pair of opposites as a unity. This unity, which contains and transcends all opposing forces, he called the Logos.
The split of this unity began with the Eleatic school, which assumed a Divine Principle standing above all gods and men. This principle was first identified with the unity of the universe, but was later seen as an intelligent and personal God who stands above the world and directs it. Thus began a trend of thought which led, ultimately, to the separation of spirit and matter and to a dualism which became characteristic of Western philosophy.
A drastic step in this direction was taken by Parmenides of Elea who was in strong opposition to Heraclitus. He called his basic principle the Being and held that it was unique and invariable. He considered change to be impossible and regarded the changes we seem to perceive, in the world as mere illusions of the senses. The concept of an indestructible substance as the subject of varying properties grew out of this philosophy and became one of the fundamental concepts of Western thought.
In the fifth century B.C., the Greek philosophers tried to overcome the sharp contrast between the views of Parmenides and Heraclitus. In order to reconcile the idea of unchangeable Being (of Parmenides) with that of eternal Becoming (of Heraclitus), they assumed that the Being is manifest in certain invariable substances, the mixture and separation of which gives rise to the changes in the world. This led to the concept of the atom, the smallest indivisible unit of matter, which found its clearest expression in the philosophy of Leucippus and Democritus. The Greek atomists drew a clear line between spirit and matter, picturing matter as being made of several ‘basic building blocks’. These were purely passive and intrinsically dead particles moving in the void. The cause of their motion was not explained, but was often associated with external forces which were assumed to be of spiritual origin and fundamentally different from matter. In subsequent centuries, this image became an essential element of Western thought, of the dualism between mind and matter, between body and soul.
As the idea of a division between spirit and matter took hold, the philosophers turned their attention to the spiritual world, rather than the material, to the human soul and the problems of ethics. These questions were to occupy Western thought for more than two thousand years after the culmination of Creek science and culture in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. The scientific knowledge of antiquity was systematized and organized by Aristotle, who created the scheme which was to be the basis of the Western view of the universe for two thousand years. But Aristotle himself believed that questions concerning the human soul and the contemplation of God’s perfection were much more valuable than investigations of the material world. The reason the Aristotelian model of the universe remained unchallenged for so long was precisely this lack of interest in the material world, and the strong hold of the Christian Church which supported Aristotle’s doctrines throughout the Middle Ages.
Further development of Western science had to wait until the Renaissance, when men began to free themselves from the influence of Aristotle and the Church and showed a new interest in nature. In the late fifteenth century, the study of nature was approached, for the first time, in a truly scientific spirit and experiments were undertaken to test speculative ideas. As this development was paralleled by a growing interest in mathematics, it finally led to the formulation of proper scientific theories, based on experiment and expressed in mathematical language. Galileo was the first to combine empirical knowledge with mathematics and is therefore seen as the father of modern science.
The birth of modern science was preceded and accompanied by a development of philosophical thought which led to an extreme formulation of the spirit/matter dualism. This formulation appeared in the seventeenth century in the philosophy of René Descartes who based his view of nature on a fundamental division into two separate and independent realms; that of mind (res cogitans), and that of matter (res extensa). The ‘Cartesian’ division allowed scientists to treat matter as dead and completely separate from themselves, and to see the material world as a multitude of different objects assembled into a huge machine. Such a mechanistic world view was held by Isaac Newton who constructed his mechanics on its basis and made it the foundation of classical physics. From the second half of the seventeenth to the end of the nineteenth century, the mechanistic Newtonian model of the universe dominated all scientific thought. It was paralleled by the image of a monarchical God who ruled the world from above by imposing his divine law on it. The fundamental laws of nature searched for by the scientists were thus seen as the laws of God, invariable and eternal, to which the world was subjected.
The philosophy of Descartes was not only important for the development of classical physics, but also had a tremendous influence on the general Western way of thinking up to the present day. Descartes’ famous sentence ‘Cogito ergo sum’—‘I think, therefore I exist’—has led Westerners to equate their identity with their mind, instead of with their whole organism. As a consequence of the Cartesian division, most individuals are aware of themselves as isolated egos existing ‘inside’ their bodies. The mind has been separated from the body and given the futile task of controlling it, thus causing an apparent conflict between the conscious will and the involuntary instincts. Each individual has been split up further into a large number of separate compartments, according to his or her activities, talents, feelings, beliefs, etc., which are engaged in endless conflicts generating continuous metaphysical confusion and frustration.
