C. MARKS FOR CORRECTION OF COMPOSITIONS
In correcting compositions certain abbreviations will save a teacher much time. Some of the common ones are given below. Underscore the element that needs correcting, and put the abbreviation in the margin. In case the whole paragraph needs remodeling, draw a line at its side and note the correction in the margin.
In addition to the above very common corrections, many others should be made. Instead of abbreviations, it will be better to refer the pupil to the page of the book which treats of the special fault. For instance, if there be an unexpected change of construction, underscore it, and write in the margin “226;” on this page is found “parallel construction” of sentences. It may be well to use the letters U., C., and M., in connection with the page numbers to indicate that the fault is in the unity, coherence, or mass of the element to be corrected. The constant reference to the fuller statement of the principles violated will serve to fix them in the mind.
D. PUNCTUATION
Punctuation seeks to do for written composition what inflections and pauses accomplish in vocal expression. It makes clear what kind of an expression the whole sentence is: whether declarative, exclamatory, or interrogative. And it assists in indicating the relations of the different parts within a sentence. While there is practically uniformity in the method of punctuation at the end of a sentence, within a sentence punctuation shows much variety of method. Where one person uses a comma, another inserts a semicolon; and where one finds a semicolon sufficient, another requires a colon. It should be remembered that the parts of a sentence have not equal rank; and that the difference in rank should, as far as possible, be indicated by the marks of punctuation. Keeping in mind, also, the fact that the internal marks of punctuation,—the colon, the semicolon, and the comma,—have a rank in the order mentioned, from the greatest to the least, a writer will use the stronger marks when the rank of the parts of a sentence demands them, and the weaker marks to separate the lesser elements of the sentence. The sentences below illustrate the variety which may be practiced, and the use of punctuation to show the relation and rank of the elements of a sentence.
Internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste but there are definite rules for final punctuation.
Internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste; there are, however, definite rules for final punctuation.
Internal punctuation, the purpose of which is to group phrases and clauses which belong together and to separate those which do not belong together, and to indicate the relative rank of the parts separated, is, to a great extent, a matter of taste: on the other hand, there are definite rules for final punctuation, the object of which is to separate sentences, and also to assist in telling what kind of a sentence precedes it; that is, whether it be declarative, interrogative, or exclamatory.
Looking at the first sentence, we find two elements of equal rank separated by a comma. Some authors would prefer no punctuation at all in a sentence as short as this. Again, if one wished to make the two elements very independent, he would use a semicolon. There would be but little difference in meaning between no punctuation and a comma; but there is a wide difference in meaning between no punctuation and a semicolon. The independence caused by the use of the semicolon is felt in the second sentence, where the words are the same except one. In this sentence a colon might be used; and one might go so far as to make two sentences of it. Notice that in these two sentences the question is how independent you wish the elements to be, and it is also a question of taste. In the third sentence, there are elements of different rank. To indicate the rank, punctuation of different value must be introduced. The two independent elements are separated by a colon. A semicolon might be used, if a semicolon were not used within the second independent element. This renders the greater mark necessary. Look at the commas in the first independent element. The assertion is that “internal punctuation is a matter of taste.” This is too sweeping. It is modified by an explanatory phrase, “to a large extent;” and this phrase is inclosed by commas. Moreover, the long clause indicating the purpose of internal punctuation is inclosed by commas. The use of a semicolon in the second part falls under the third rule for the semicolon. If one should substitute for this semicolon a comma and a dash, he could use a semicolon instead of a colon for separating the two main divisions of the sentence. However, the method in which they are first punctuated is in accord with the rules generally accepted. The simplest of these rules are given below but one must never be surprised to find a piece of literature in which the internal punctuation is at variance with these rules.
CAPITAL LETTERS
1. A capital letter begins every new sentence.
2. A capital letter begins every line of poetry.
3. All names of Deity begin with a capital letter.
4. All proper names begin with capital letters.
5. All adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters.
6. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter.
7. Most abbreviations use capital letters.
COMMAS
1. A series of words or a series of phrases, performing similar functions in a sentence, are separated from each other by commas, unless all the connectives are expressed.
“Her voice was ever soft,
Gentle, and low,—an excellent thing in woman.”
“Good my lord,
You have begot me, bred me, loved me: I
Return those duties back as are right fit,
Obey you, love you, and most honor you.”
But, “shining and tall and fair and straight,” because all the connectives are expressed.
2. Words out of their natural order are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
“To the unlearned, punctuation is a matter of chance.”
3. Words and phrases, either explanatory or slightly parenthetical, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
“Then poor Cordelia!
And yet not so; since, I am sure, my love ’s
More richer than my tongue.”
However when phrases and clauses are quite parenthetic, they are separated from the remainder of the sentence by parentheses, or by commas and dashes. The comma and dash is more common, and generally indicates a lesser independence of the inclosed element.
“Then Miss Gunns smiled stiffly, and thought what a pity it was that these rich country people, who could afford to buy such good clothes (really Miss Nancy’s lace and silk were very costly), should be brought up in utter ignorance and vulgarity.”
4. The nominative of direct address, and phrases in the nominative absolute construction are cut off by commas.
“Goneril,
Our eldest born, speak first.”
“The ridges being taken, the troops advanced a thousand yards.”
5. Appositive words and phrases are separated from the remainder of the sentence by commas.
“In the early years of this century, such a linen weaver, named Silas Marner, worked at his vocation, in a stone cottage that stood among the nutty hedgerows near the village of Raveloe, and not far from the edge of a deserted stone-pit.”
6. When words are omitted, the omission is indicated by the use of a comma.
“Fairest Cordelia, that art most rich, being poor;
Most choice, forsaken; and most loved, despis’d!”
7. A comma is used before a short and informal quotation.
“In the bitterness of his wounded spirit, he said to himself, ‘She will cast me off too.’”
A comma is used to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence sufficiently involved to necessitate some mark of punctuation, and yet not involved enough to require marks of different ranks.
“But about the Christmas of the fifteenth year a second great change came over Marner’s life, and his history became blent in a singular manner with the life of his neighbors.”
Small groups of more closely related words are inclosed by commas to indicate their near relation and to separate them from words they might otherwise be thought to modify.
“In this strange world, made a hopeless riddle to him, he might, if he had had a less intense nature, have sat weaving, weaving—looking towards the end of his pattern, or towards the end of his web, till he forgot the riddle, and everything else but his immediate sensations; but the money had come to mark off his weaving into periods, and the money not only grew, but it remained with him.”
SEMICOLONS
1. A semicolon is used to separate the parts of a compound sentence if they are involved, or contain commas. It is also used to give independence to the members of a compound sentence when not very complex.
“The meadow was searched in vain; and he got over the stile into the next field, looking with dying hope towards a small pond which was now reduced to its summer shallowness, so as to leave a wide margin of good adhesive mud.”
“As for the child, he would see that it was cared for; he would never forsake it; he would do everything but own it.”
2. Semicolons are used to separate a series of clauses in much the same way as commas are used to separate a series of words.
“I love you more than words can wield the matter;
Dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty;
Beyond what can be valued, rich or rare;
No less than life, with grace, health, beauty, honor;
As much as child e’er loved, or father found;
A love that makes breath poor, and speech unable;
Beyond all manner of so much I love thee.”
3. A semicolon is generally used to introduce a clause of repetition, a clause stating the obverse, and a clause stating an inference.
(Many examples of the last two rules will be found in the discussion of compound sentences on pages 202, 203.)
COLONS
1. A colon is used to introduce a formal quotation. It is frequently followed by a dash.
“Under date of November 28, 1860, she wrote to a friend:—
“‘I am engaged now in writing a story—the idea of which came to me after our arrival in this house, and which has thrust itself between me and the other book I was meditating. It is Silas Manner, the Weaver of Raveloe.’”
“On the last day of the same year she wrote: ‘I am writing a story which came across my other plans by a sudden inspiration, etc.’”
2. A colon is used to introduce a series of particulars, either appositional or explanatory, which the reader has been led to expect by the first clause of the sentence. These particulars are separated from each other by semicolons.
“The study of the principles of composition should include the following subjects: a study of words as to their origin and meaning; a study of the structure of the sentence and of the larger elements of discourse—in other words, of concrete logic; a study of the principles of effective literary composition, as illustrated in the various divisions of literature; and also a study of the æsthetics of literature.”
“What John Morley once said of literature as a whole is even more accurate when applied to fiction alone: its purpose is ‘to bring sunshine into our hearts and to drive moonshine out of our heads.’”
3. A colon is used to separate the major parts of a very complex and involved sentence, if the major parts, or either of them, contain within themselves semicolons.
“For four years he had thought of Nancy Lammeter, and wooed her with a tacit patient worship, as the woman who made him think of the future with joy: she would be his wife, and would make home lovely to him, as his father’s home had never been; and it would be easy, when she was always near, to shake off those foolish habits that were no pleasures, but only a feverish way of annulling vacancy.”
4. A colon is sometimes used to mark a strong independence in the parts of a compound sentence.
“He didn’t want to give Godfrey that pleasure: he preferred that Master Godfrey should be vexed.”
THE DASH
1. A dash is frequently used with a colon to introduce a formal quotation. The quotation then begins a new paragraph.
(Example under colon.)
2. A dash is used alone or with a comma to inclose a phrase or clause which is parenthetic or explanatory.
“‘But as for being ugly, look at me, child, in this silver-colored silk—I told you how it ’ud be—I look as yallow as a daffadil.’”
(Example under comma.)
3. A dash is used to denote a sudden turn of the thought.
“I’ve no opinion of the men, Miss Gunn—I don’t know what you have.”
“‘It does make her look funny, though—partly like a short-necked bottle wi’ a long quill in it.’”
4. A dash is frequently used when the composition should be interrupted to indicate the intensity of the emotion.
“‘No—no—I can’t part with it, I can’t let it go,’ said Silas abruptly. ‘It’s come to me—I’ve a right to keep it.’”
“And my poor fool is hang’d! No, no, no life!
Why should a dog, a horse, a rat, have life,
And thou no breath at all? Thou’lt come no more,
Never, never, never, never, never!—
Pray you, undo this button:—thank you, sir.—
Do you see this? Look on her,—look,—her lips,—
Look there, look there!”—
5. A dash is sometimes used alone before an appositive phrase or clause.
“For the first time he determined to try the coal-hole—a small closet near the hearth.”
PERIOD, EXCLAMATION POINT, INTERROGATION MARK
1. A period closes every declarative sentence.
2. A period is used after abbreviations.
3. An exclamation point follows an expression of strong emotion.
4. An interrogation mark follows a direct question.
5. An interrogation mark is sometimes used in the body of a sentence, when the writer wishes to make the assertion forceful and uses a rhetorical question for the purpose.
“The shepherd’s dog barked fiercely when one of these alien-looking men appeared on the upland, dark against the early winter sunset; for what dog likes a figure bent under a heavy bag?—and these pale men rarely stirred abroad without that mysterious burden.”
Quotation marks inclose every quotation of the exact words of another. When one quotation is made within another, the inner or secondary quotation is inclosed with single marks, the main or outer quotation is included within the double marks.
(Examples of both may be found above.)
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING PUNCTUATION
At the time the pupils are studying the rules for punctuation they are reading Hawthorne or some other author equally careful of his punctuation. In his writing they will find numerous examples of the rules for punctuation. Let them take five rules for the comma, finding all the examples in five pages of text. In the same way furnish semicolons, colons, and dashes. When the rules have all been learned, they should be able to give the reason for every mark they find in literature. Next place upon the board paragraphs not punctuated, and have the pupils punctuate them. Remember that there is not absolute uniformity in the use of the comma, semicolon, and colon; though in each author there is a general adherence to the principles he adopts. Punctuation should be consistent. Insist that the pupil punctuate his written work consistently.
E. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF LITERATURE. 59
Hawthorne. A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys.
Tennyson. Enoch Arden.
Longfellow. Tales of a Wayside Inn.
Whittier. The Tent on the Beach.
Macaulay. Lays of Ancient Rome.
Dickens. A Christmas Carol.
Kipling. Wee Willie Winkie, and Other Stories.
Kipling. The Jungle Books.
Hawthorne. Twice-Told Tales.
Hawthorne. Mosses from an Old Manse.
Dickens. The Cricket on the Hearth.
Brown. Rab and his Friends.
Ouida. A Dog of Flanders.
Hale. The Man without a Country.
Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
Poe. The Gold-Bug.
Scott. Marmion.
Scott. The Lady of the Lake.
Browning. Hervé Riel, an Incident of the French Camp, and other Narrative Poems.
Franklin. Autobiography.
Cooper. The Last of the Mohicans.
Longfellow. Evangeline.
Longfellow. Miles Standish.
Davis. Gallegher, and Other Stories.
Maupassant. Number Thirteen.
Miss Wilkins. Short Stories.
Miss Jewett. Short Stories.
Pope. The Iliad.
Aldrich. Marjorie Daw.
Lowell. The Vision of Sir Launfal, and Other Poems.
Irving. Tales of a Traveller.
Irving. The Sketch Book.
Poe. The Fall of the House of Usher.
Whittier. Snow-Bound.
Burroughs. Sharp Eyes; Birds and Bees; Pepacton.
Goldsmith. The Deserted Village.
Scott. Ivanhoe.
Dickens. David Copperfield.
Shakespeare. Julius Cæsar.
Shakespeare. The Merchant of Venice.
Irving. Rip Van Winkle.
Irving. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.
Bryant. Selected Poems.
Gray. An Elegy in a Country Churchyard.
Tennyson. The Princess; Idylls of the King.
Dickens. The Pickwick Papers.
Burns. Selected Poems.
Dryden. Alexander’s Feast.
Byron. Childe Harold.
George Eliot. Silas Marner.
Coleridge. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
Macaulay. Essay on Milton.
Ruskin. Sesame and Lilies.
Emerson. Friendship; Self-Reliance; Fortune of the Republic; The American Scholar.
Arnold. On the Study of Poetry; Wordsworth and Keats.
Lowell. Emerson, the Lecturer; Milton; Books and Libraries.
Holmes. The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table.
Addison. The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers.
Wordsworth. Intimations of Immortality, and Other Poems.
Keats. Selected Poems.
Shelley. Selected Poems.
Shakespeare. Macbeth.
Shakespeare. A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
Shakespeare. As You Like It.
Webster. Bunker Hill Monument Oration; Adams and Jefferson.
Goldsmith. The Vicar of Wakefield.
Milton. L’Allegro; Il Penseroso; Comus; Lycidas.
De Quincey. Confessions of an English Opium Eater, and Other Papers.
John Henry Newman. Selected Essays.
Thackeray. Henry Esmond.
Stevenson. Virginibus Puerisque.
Stevenson. Memories and Portraits.
Schurz. Abraham Lincoln.
George William Curtis. Selected Addresses.
Charles Lamb. Essays of Elia.
Stevenson. Travels with a Donkey.
Stevenson. An Inland Voyage.
Burke. Conciliation with the Colonies.
Lincoln. Cooper Union Address; Gettysburg Speech.
Chaucer. Prologue, and Two Canterbury Tales.
Milton. Paradise Lost, and Sonnets.
Carlyle. Essay on Burns.
Tennyson. In Memoriam, and Lyrics.
Browning. Rabbi Ben Ezra; Saul; A Grammarian’s Funeral.
Thoreau. Walden.
Austen. Pride and Prejudice.
George Eliot. Romola.
Shakespeare. King Lear.
Shakespeare. Hamlet.
Macaulay. Essay on Johnson.
Thackeray. Vanity Fair.
Lowell. Democracy; Lincoln.
Stevenson. Lantern Bearers; A Humble Remonstrance; Gossip about Romance.