The caterpillar is pale green, clouded with a darker tint, and has a white line on each side of the back. It feeds in May on the three trees named for the last species, also on lime (Tilia vulgaris) and elm (Ulmus campestris).
Family – Larentiidæ
This is by far the most extensive family of the Geometræ, containing as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well nigh a half of the whole group.
The wings of the various species are smooth and more or less glossy, and the front pair are generally crossed by several wavy lines. Many of the moths, and particularly those known popularly as the Pugs, are very small. Representatives of the family are to be met with almost throughout the year – from early spring to the middle of the winter.
Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without humps; and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees or low plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some of the smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.
We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for individual description.
The November Moth (Oporabia dilutata)
Fig. 194. – The November Moth.
Our first example is the November moth – a rather dingy and very variable species that may be found almost everywhere in October and November. The ground colour of the fore wings is dingy grey, crossed by several darker lines, subject to considerable variations. The hind wings are paler, with two slender darker lines parallel with the hind margin.
The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are the oak, whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is very variable in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with reddish or purplish spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are yellow or orange, and below them is a white stripe. It is full fed in June.
The Twin-spot Carpet (Larentia didymata)
Fig. 195. – The Twin-spot Carpet.
The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain, and the beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July during his first season. Our illustration represents the male, the fore wings of which are greyish brown, crossed by several dark lines, and with a double dark and conspicuous spot near the middle of the hind margin. The female is much lighter, and the markings are also lighter and less distinct.
The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow whitish line along the spiracles. It feeds in April and May on the leaves of the wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa), chervil (Chærophyllum temulum), and other plants.
The Grass Rivulet (Emmelesia albulata)
We represent the genus Emmelesia by the Grass Rivulet – a pretty little moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed though not abundant.
Fig. 196. – The Grass Rivulet.
Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by several white lines, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. The hind wings are of the same ground colour, but have no markings except a white wavy line near the hind margin.
The caterpillar feeds during July and August on the seeds of the yellow rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli), protecting itself from its enemies by spinning together the petals of the flowers; and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis under the same cover.
The Netted Pug (Eupithecia venosata)
We now come to the enormous genus Eupithecia, containing about fifty small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.' Many of these are only imperfectly known, there being yet much to learn about their earlier stages.
Fig. 197. – The Netted Pug.
The Netted Pug flies in May and June, and is to be found in most parts of Great Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed by two zigzag light bands, both of which are bordered with black, and divided throughout by a fine dark line. There are also other dark lines, both transverse and longitudinal, arranged as here represented.
The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of campions (Silene Cucubalis, S. maritima, S. acaulis, and Lychnis diurna) and catchfly (Silene gallica and S. nutans).
The Narrow-winged Pug (Eupithecia nanata)
Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth may be seen flying about at dusk among the heather on our moors. It is one of the first Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed, and very common in some localities.
Fig. 198. – The Narrow-winged Pug.
Its wings are dark grey, and marked with several transverse wavy light lines. The fringe is dark grey, spotted with white.
The caterpillar feeds during August and September on the ling (Calluna vulgaris) and heath (Erica cinerea and E. Tetralix).
The Brindled Pug (Eupithecia abbreviata)
Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another early species, appearing on the wing in March and April. It is common in most parts, and may generally be easily obtained by searching fences and tree trunks.
Fig. 199. – The Brindled Pug.
Its fore wings are very long in proportion. The colour is yellowish brown, crossed by darker lines. The fore wings have a very broad band of the ground colour, broken by two short lines, and crossed by a slender angulated stripe.
The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.
The Small Seraphim (Lobophora sexalisata)
This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance, and is quite as small and even smaller than some of them; but it and the other members of its genus differ from the Pugs in that they cover their hind wings when at rest.
Fig. 200. – The Small Seraphim.
The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish grey with four paler transverse lines, the two median ones of which are divided throughout by a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings are grey, paler at the base, and crossed centrally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and June, and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described as common.
The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (Salix alba) and sallow (S. caprea) in August and September; and the chrysalis may be found in a silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout the winter.
The Blue-bordered Carpet (Melanthia bicolorata)
This same family (Larentiidæ) is remarkable for its large number of pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many of which are exceedingly common in our woods and gardens.
Fig. 201. – The Blue-bordered Carpet.
Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered, which is pretty well represented in several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. Its white fore wings are boldly marked with a blotch of greyish brown at the base, and another extending from the middle of the costal margin more than halfway across. The hind margin is marked with two bluish grey bars, separated by a white line. The hind wings are white, with a very small dark spot, and a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore wings.
The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker and lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (Alnus glutinosa) and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa); and when full grown it changes to a brown chrysalis within a light silken web.
The moth flies in July and August.
The Beautiful Carpet (Melanthia albicillata)
Fig. 202. – The Beautiful Carpet.
The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as Bicolorata. Its wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the hind margin. The basal blotches of the fore wings are large, of a dark brown colour, and marbled with a light tint. Near the tips of these wings is another conspicuous blotch of the same colour, from which a delicate wavy dark line runs to the inner margin. A small dark spot also lies near the middle of the costal margin of each of the four wings.
The caterpillar is green, with a white line along the spiracles, and a triangular reddish spot on the back of segments four to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (Rubus fruticosus), raspberry (R. Idæus), and wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca). It may be found in June and July.
The moth flies in June.
The Common Carpet (Melanippe sociata)
Fig. 203. – The Common Carpet.
The genus Melanippe contains twelve species, some of which are extremely common. One of these moths – the Common Carpet – is represented in fig. 203. Its wings are all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by numerous white lines, the arrangement of which may be gathered from our illustration better than from a written description. It is a double-brooded insect, appearing first in May, and then again about the end of July.
The caterpillar is mottled with shades of brown and grey. On the back are five or six greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few white dots on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw (Galium Mollugo), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon on the ground.
The Silver Ground Carpet (Melanippe montanata)
Fig. 204. – The Silver Ground Carpet.
In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of the fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey bar, containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind margins of the fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown, and lines of the same tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind wings.
This moth is very common in all parts of the country, and may be seen on the wing throughout the summer.
The caterpillar is light brown, with several longitudinal lines of different colours. On the back of each of the segments seven, eight, and nine is a distinct black V-shaped mark, terminating behind with a bright red spot. It feeds on the primrose (Primula acaulis) in the autumn, hybernates through the winter, and is full grown about the beginning of April.
The Garden Carpet (Melanippe fluctuata)
Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet – a moth that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since it is the commonest of all the Geometræ that frequent our gardens.
Fig. 205. – The Garden Carpet.
The fore wings are pale grey or brownish, with a patch of dark greyish brown at the base, another larger one on the middle of the costa, and a third near the tip. The wing is usually clouded between the middle blotch and the inner margin, and numerous fine wavy lines, more or less distinct, cross the wing.
This moth may be seen throughout the summer, from May to September, but is most abundant in June and July.
The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either green, brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled and dotted with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium (Tropæolum majus), rape (Brassica Napus), and various other cruciferous plants; and may be found from April to August.
The Yellow Shell (Camptogramma bilineata)
Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful little Yellow Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts that we arouse it at almost every stroke while beating low bushes.
Fig. 206. – The Yellow Shell.
All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate white and brown lines. The most conspicuous feature is the two white lines, with dark brown edging, crossing the fore wings.
The caterpillar feeds by night, and is therefore seldom seen except by those who make special nocturnal searches with the aid of a lantern or sweep net. It devours various grasses, and hides itself among the roots or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April or May. The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal line, and two white stripes on each side.
The Small Phœnix (Cidaria silaceata)
Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we select the small Phœnix as the last example of this very extensive family.
Fig. 207. – The Small Phœnix.
The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the hind margin. Most of the wing rays are generally of a pale yellowish colour, and a variable and complicated system of whitish lines crosses the wings near the base, and another near the hind margin. Among the latter there is always a series of dark triangular spots, with apices pointing towards the hind margin.
This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles, and is double brooded, appearing in May and August.
The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the middle of the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light web.
Family – Euboliidæ
This is the last family of the Geometræ we shall notice, and contains ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and all have the tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule, too, there is a dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for a short distance obliquely inward.
They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten from their hiding places during the day.
The larvæ are not humped, and may be found feeding on low plants.
We shall briefly examine two species.
The Small Mallow (Eubolia limitata)
This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to August, and is easily obtained by lightly beating the foliage of small bushes and low plants.
Fig. 208. – The Small Mallow.
Its fore wings are pale brown crossed by a broad central bar, the edges of which are darker. The hind wings are of a paler brown, and are crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.
Although the perfect insect is so common, the caterpillar seems to be seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in May and June.
The Treble Bar (Anaitis plagiata)
Our last example of the Geometræ is the Treble Bar, a very pretty moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be readily identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore need not be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed throughout the British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant species, particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.
The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments. The dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs along each side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the perforated St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum).
This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and August, and remaining with us throughout the month following in each case.
CHAPTER XXI
THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA
The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the last four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the Macro-lepidoptera; but in addition to these there are many hundreds of small British moths that represent what is known as the Micro-lepidoptera.
It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with the 'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with the larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to extend their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that they may make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly across their path.
Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even in outline, with both these divisions of the Lepidoptera in a work of the present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger species so as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of my readers. But in order that the beginner may also have the means of introducing himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,' I shall set apart this chapter for a simple account of the broad principles of their classification, illustrated by means of a few types, so that the collector may at least know something of the insects he captures, even though he may not be able at once to fix on their names.
The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features that enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his cabinet, may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a public museum or the private collection of an entomological friend, and so obtain the names and other details he may require.
The Micro-lepidoptera are divided into five main groups —Pyralides, Pterophori, Crambi, Tortrices, and Tineæ, each of which is divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the case of the 'Macros.'
Pyralides
The Pyralides may be easily distinguished by the proportionately long fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of them have wings of a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known popularly as the 'Pearls.' Some species fly in bright sunshine, others appear on the wing before sunset, and fly till dusk; others, again, are purely nocturnal in their habits. All, however, are apparently light sleepers, and may be easily beaten out of their resting places and netted by day. Some of these moths are common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local, though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.
The larvæ have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are generally gregarious in their habits.
This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five families as follows:
1. Pyralididæ, including about forty species.
2. Botydæ, about thirty species.
3. Steniiadæ, containing only five species.
4. Hydrocampidæ, four species.
5. Acentropodidæ, containing only one.
The Tabby (Aglossa pinguinalis)
The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth, commonly met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns and stables.
Fig. 209. – The Tabby or Grease Moth.
Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed with zigzag darker lines, and having a black spot near the centre of the costal margin. The term 'Tabby' has been applied on account of the fancied resemblance of the transverse markings to the fur of a tabby cat, and the other popular name was given under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty matter, but it is extremely doubtful whether this supposition is correct.
The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened outside by fragments of hay, chaff &c. that have been spun together. It feeds from September to April, except during very severe weather, and when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes to a chrysalis in a light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.
The moth emerges in July.
The Meal Moth (Pyralis farinalis)
The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called because in the larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.
Fig. 210. – The Meal Moth.
The fore wings are yellowish grey, with reddish basal patches, a broad reddish band along the hind margin, and two whitish indented transverse lines. The hind wings are grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to and continuous with those of the front pair.
This moth is to be found in abundance throughout the summer months in places where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities, sitting on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in the evening.
The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &c., and lives concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and then changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.
The Small Magpie (Eurrhypara urticata)
Fig. 211. – The Small Magpie.
The family Botydæ contains the moths that are popularly known as the 'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings. One of its species – the Small Magpie – is shown in the accompanying illustration. Its fore wings are pearly white, with blackish hind margin, a yellow streak at the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement of which may be seen in the figure.
It is a very common moth, flying at dusk during June and July in waste places where the stinging nettle grows.
The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), always remaining concealed between leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.
The Mother-of-Pearl (Botys ruralis)
This is another very common species of the family Botydæ, abundant almost everywhere, and to be found on the wing from June to August.
Fig. 212. – The Mother-of-Pearl.
Its wings are whitish, and exhibit a very decided pearly lustre, and all the markings are of a dull dark grey.
The caterpillar is glossy, and has a semi-transparent appearance. It is greenish white above, with a darker line down the back; and the sides are of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) during May.
The Garden Pebble (Pionea forficalis)
The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one of the commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and country.
Fig. 213. – The Garden Pebble.
The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings. The latter include a fine line from the tip to the middle of the inner margin, and another paler one inside and parallel with this, having a dark spot near its centre. The hind wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted line parallel with the hind margin.
The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a dark line along the back and on each side. It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants.
The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the caterpillar may be found about midsummer, and again in the autumn.
The Beautiful China Mark (Hydrocampa stagnata)
Fig. 214. – The Beautiful China Mark.
Our last example of the Pyralides– the Beautiful China Mark – belongs to the family Hydrocampidæ. This small family is remarkable for the fact that its four species spend their larval state in the water, feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water lilies and other aquatic plants. These curious larvæ live either in cases which they construct for their protection, something after the fashion of the larvæ of caddis flies, or quite free in the water, and then they are supplied with special breathing organs that enable them to absorb the oxygen held in solution in the water.
The moth we have selected for illustration is a very common species, and may be seen flying in great numbers in the neighbourhood of ponds during June and July.
The Pterophori
The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable from all other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a feature that has gained for them the popular name of Plume Moths. Their fore wings are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind wings are generally divided into three distinct feathery plumes.
The larvæ are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves by their anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without any kind of covering. They are generally to be found in spring and early summer, but some of them feed in the autumn.
The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are perfectly smooth.
Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the year. Many of the earlier species appear on the wing in spring and early summer; but the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and hybernate through the winter, often taking to the wing on the mild days of our coldest months.
The Pterophori include only about forty British species, all of which, with two exceptions, belong to the family Pterophoridæ. The two exceptions represent as many families – one the Chrysocorididæ, and the other the Alucitidæ.
Platyptilia gonodactyla
This is one of the commonest of the Pterophoridæ, generally appearing in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of May, and continuing with us for some time. It starts from its retreat at or before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.
Fig. 215. – Gonodactyla.
Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal margin, and a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this patch the wing is cleft. The hind wings consist of three distinct brownish plumes, the third of which has a small tuft of black scales projecting from the middle of the inner margin.
The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks of the coltsfoot during March and April.
Leioptilus osteodactylus
This is another species of the same family. It is not uncommon, but is more local than the last.
Fig. 216. – Osteodactylus.
Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a small brown dot at the commencement of the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on the costal margin nearer the tip. The hind wings are divided into three distinct plumes like those of Gonodactyla.
This is a later species, appearing on the wing in July.
Aciptilia pentadactyla
Fig. 217. – Pentadactyla.
The fore wings of this species are white, frequently with a few greyish scales, and are deeply divided into two feathery plumes. The hind wings are pure white, and consist of three plumes.
This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies during June and July.
The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.
Alucita hexadactyla
Our last example of the Pterophori is the Twelve-plume Moth, the only British representative of the family Alucitidæ.
Fig. 218. – Hexadactyla – Enlarged.
This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands across the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided into six distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents sheltered spots, flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on the wing till October, and then hybernates till the following April. During the winter it is commonly met with in outhouses and even in dwelling houses.
The caterpillar feeds during June and July on the flower buds of the honeysuckle (Lonicera Periclymenum). It is not hairy, like most of the larvæ of the last family; and, unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis in a silken cocoon.
Crambi
The third group of the 'Micros' is the Crambi, and contains about eighty species, arranged in four families.
Some of them are common moths with which all must be more or less familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they repose at almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the summer. When at rest, they present a very peculiar appearance. Their wings are wrapped closely round their bodies in such a manner that they are hardly distinguishable from the stems on which they repose.
The larvæ have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their habits. Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some on the stems of reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed on the wax of the honeycomb.
The four families are:
1. Chilidæ– five species.
2. Crambidæ– about thirty species.
3. Phycidæ– over forty species.
4. Galleridæ– five species.
Chilo Phragmitellus
This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and is popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest of the family Chilidæ.
Fig. 219. – Phragmitellus – Enlarged one-half.
Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They are of a pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots along the hind margin.
The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head and second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common reed (Phragmites) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following spring, when it resumes its feeding.
This insect is rather local, but may be searched for in all marshy places where reeds abound.
Crambus hamellus
Fig. 220. – Hamellus – Slightly enlarged.
The family Crambidæ is represented by the above-named species, which has the popular title of Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common moth, but is to be obtained in some localities by beating low herbage.
Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy, with a silvery streak from the base, running almost parallel with the costal margin. The hind margin is yellow, bordered inside by a wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale greyish brown with a yellowish margin.
Crambus tristellus
The same family contains the species Tristellus, which, unlike the preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.
Fig. 221. – Tristellus.
Its fore wings are generally yellowish brown, but exceedingly variable. A pale streak runs from the base to just beyond the middle of the wing, and is then forked. Near the hind margin is a very indistinct brown wavy line. The hind wings are dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As with the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.
The moth flies from July to September.
Crambus hortuellus
This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere during June and July.
Fig. 222. – Hortuellus.
Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are whitish near the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery edging crosses near the hind margin. The hind wings are dull smoky brown, with a shining surface, and the fringe is light.
The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots, and may be found among moss in April and May.
Galleria mellonella
Our last example of the Crambi is a moth that the young entomologist is not likely to meet with unless he happens to be in the neighbourhood of one of its haunts, but its habits are so peculiar that we are tempted to introduce it on that account.
Fig. 223. – Mellonella.
It belongs to the family Galleridæ, the larvæ of which feed on the wax combs in the hives of bees and in the nests of wild bees. They are protected from the stings of the inmates by silken tubes which they construct, and by the hardened covering of their heads and front segments – the only parts that remain exposed while they are feeding.
The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish, sometimes with a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner margin. The hind wings are greyish brown.
It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and June.
The Tortrices
This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the peculiar habit of a number of the larvæ of twisting or rolling up leaves for their protection. This habit, however, is not common to all, for some feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and fruits.
The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the wings. The fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in such a way that, when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its outline is much the shape of a bell.
The identification of the various species of this extensive group is no easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring that insects of the same species are often very different from each other. So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties that many insects, once considered to belong to separate species, have been reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number of instances.