The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and there consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems probable that this shading action would not have become habitual until man had assumed a completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the children of existing savage races.

Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched. Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting, – that is, if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until a much later period.

Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent.

From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration; for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously enraged.

The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says: —

 
      Is it not monstrous that this player here,
      But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
      Could force his soul so to his own conceit,
      That, from her working, all his visage wann'd;
      Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect,
      A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
      With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
 

Hamlet, act ii. sc. 2.

We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it has already received from several excellent observers, and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able physiologist.

FOOTNOTES:

1 (return)

[ J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the 'Philosophical Transactions' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression.]

2 (return)

[ Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres des Passions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of the 'Conferences' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]

3 (return)

[ 'Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les diverses passions,' &c. 1792. 1844]

4 (return)

[ I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views.]

5 (return)

[ 'De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101.]

6 (return)

[ 'L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater.]

7 (return)

[ 'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]

8 (return)

[ 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the 'Emotions and Will.']

9 (return)

[ 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121.]

10 (return)

[ 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]

11 (return)

[ Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer has written another, on "Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the 'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the 'Principles of Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my 'Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of the present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the year 1838.]

12 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]

13 (return)

[ Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]

14 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138.]

15 (return)

[ 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73.]

16 (return)

[ 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31.]

17 (return)

[ 'Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p. 934.]

18 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198.]

19 (return)

[ See remarks to this effect in Lessing's 'Lacooon,' translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]

20 (return)

[ Mr. Partridge in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227.]

21 (return)

[ 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]

22 (return)

[ 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91.]

101 (return)

[ Mr. Herbert Spencer ('Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the latter being "generated in our corporeal framework." He classes as Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]

102 (return)

[ Muller, 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting speculations on the same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his 'Principles of Biology,' vol. ii. p. 346; and in his 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp. 511-557.]

103 (return)

[ A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 140.]

104 (return)

[ See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts, 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol. ii. p. 304.]

105 (return)

[ 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit. 1872, p. 306), "It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not."]

106 (return)

[ Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]

107 (return)

[ 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 1862, p. 17.]

108 (return)

[ 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case: – "The following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or more. The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm.

"Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is, as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.

"One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes occurring almost incessantly."]

109 (return)

[ Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Physiology,' 5th edit. p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are NATURAL; but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of ARTIFICIAL reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits ('Sammlung wissenschaft. Vortrage,' &c., "Ueber das Ruckeninark," 1871, ss. 24, 31) that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts; and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from inherited habits.]

110 (return)

[ Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 8.]

111 (return)

[ See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,' 1866, p. 353-356.]

112 (return)

[ 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 85.]

113 (return)

[ Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.]

114 (return)

[ Dr. Maudsley remarks ('Body and Mind,' p. 10) that "reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death."]

115 (return)

[ See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in 'Land and Water,' October, 1869.]

116 (return)

[ "Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed (p. 151) in this work.]

117 (return)

[ Carpenter, 'Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854, p. 690, and Muller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 936.]

118 (return)

[ Mowbray on 'Poultry,' 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]

119 (return)

[ See the account given by this excellent observer in 'Wild Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142.]

120 (return)

[ 'Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p. 182.]

201 (return)

[ 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 55.]

202 (return)

[ Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture-language in his 'Early History of Mankind' (2nd edit. 1870, p. 40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures.]

203 (return)

[ See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott's interesting work, 'The Deaf and Dumb,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, "This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it still has the force of the original expression."]

301 (return)

[ See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in the 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]

302 (return)

[ Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, "all the spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trembling of the whole body."]

303 (return)

[ 'Lecons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp. 457-466.]

304 (return)

[ Mr. Bartlett, "Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus," Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]

305 (return)

[ See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly the same effect in his essay "Ueber das Ruckenmark" (Sammlung wissenschaft. Vortrage, 1871, s. 28).]

306 (return)

[ Muller ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, "any sudden change of condition of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action." See Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works referred to in my last foot-note.]

307 (return)

[ H. Spencer, 'Essays, Scientific, Political,' &c., Second Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]

308 (return)

[ Sir H. Holland, in speaking ('Medical Notes and Reflexions,' 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the fidgets, remarks that it seems due to "an accumulation of some cause of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief."]

309 (return)

[ I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed me of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary state.]

310 (return)

[ How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne ('Medical Mirror,' 1865) records the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who, on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait, uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking, and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of strength.]

311 (return)

[ Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]

312 (return)

[ Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of 'Miss Majoribanks,' p. 362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.]

401 (return)

[ See the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]

402 (return)

[ 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858. 'The Origin and Function of Music,' p. 359.]

403 (return)

[ 'The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the 'American Naturalist,' vol. v. December, 1871, p. 761.]

404 (return)

[ Mr. Tylor ('Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]

405 (return)

[ 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 46.]

406 (return)

[ Quoted by Gratiolet, 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 115.]

407 (return)

[ 'Theorie Physiologique de la Musique,' Paris, 1868, P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of vowel-sounds.]

408 (return)

[ I have given some details on this subject in my 'Descent of Man,' vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]

409 (return)

[ As quoted in Huxley's 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 52.]

410 (return)

[ Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]

411 (return)

[ The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May, 1868, pp. 36, 40. For the Capra, AEgagrus, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 37.]

412 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' July 20, 1867, p. 659.]

413 (return)

[ Phaeton rubricauda: 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]

414 (return)

[ On the Strix flammea, Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the Zoological Gardens.]

415 (return)

[ Melopsittacus undulatus. See an account of its habits by Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]

416 (return)

[ See, for instance, the account which I have given ('Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]

417 (return)

[ These muscles are described in his well-known works. I am greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me in a letter information on this same subject.]

418 (return)

[ 'Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,' 1857, s. 82. I owe to Prof. W. Turner's kindness an extract from this work.]

419 (return)

[ 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, vol. i. p. 262.]

420 (return)

[ 'Lehrbuch der Histologie,' 1857, s. 82.]

421 (return)

[ 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' p. 403.]

422 (return)

[ See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr. Cooper, as quoted in 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 512.]

423 (return)

[ Dr. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' p. 262.]

424 (return)

[ Mr. J. Mansel Weale, 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508.]

425 (return)

[ 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with that of the Rattle-snake.]

426 (return)

[ See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 196.]

427 (return)

[ The 'American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]

428 (return)

[ From the accounts lately collected, and given in the 'Journal of the Linnean Society,' by Airs. Barber, on the habits of the snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North America, – it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the smaller animals.]

429 (return)

[ See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]

430 (return)

[ Dr. Gunther remarks ('Reptiles of British India,' p. 340) on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]

431 (return)

[ Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his 'Method of Creation of Organic Types,' read before the American Phil. Soc., December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to this subject in the last edition of my 'Origin of Species.' Since the passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to find that Mr. Henderson ('The American Naturalist,' May, 1872, p. 260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely "in preventing an attack from being made."]

432 (return)

[ Mr. des Voeux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]

433 (return)

[ 'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' 1866, p. 53. p. 53.{sic}]

434 (return)

[ 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 443.]

501 (return)

[ 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 190.]

502 (return)

[ 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, pp. 187, 218.]

503 (return)

[ 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 140.]

504 (return)

[ Many particulars are given by Gueldenstadt in his account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this animal and of its play, in 'Land and Water,' October, 1869. Lieut. Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]

505 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' November 6, 1869.]

506 (return)

[ Azara, 'Quadrupedes du Paraquay,' 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]

507 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the Puma, in the work above quoted.]

508 (return)

[ Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123. See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with reference to their distended nostrils.]

509 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' 1869, p. 152.]

510 (return)

[ 'Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383, 410.]

511 (return)

[ Rengger ('Sagetheire von Paraquay', 1830, s. 46) kept these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of Paraguay.]

512 (return)

[ Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative, Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]

513 (return)

[ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]

514 (return)

[ Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking the ground, s. 61.]

515 (return)

[ Brehm remarks ('Thierleben,' s. 68) that the eyebrows of the Inuus ecaudatus are frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.]

516 (return)

[ G. Bennett, 'Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol. ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18. – Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.]

517 (return)

[ W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.]

518 (return)

[ Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the corrugator supercilii is inseparable from the orbicularis palpebrarum.]

519 (return)

[ Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845 – 47, vol. v. p. 423. On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]