Chapter VIII
A Question of Territory
"Never before has this fine country seen such troubles," said Colonel George Washington, as he sat puffing at his pipe and looking across the wooden flooring of his hut at Steve's long and active figure. "You have had fighting, you tell me. You will see more. We are only just entering upon the struggle. Tell me, Steve, what do you propose to do?"
That was a question which our hero found some difficulty in answering. But at length he rolled over on the form and sat up to look at his host.
"What do you advise?" he asked. "I have a letter here which I wish to deliver at Charlestown, and I should like to find out what has happened to my father. After that I shall join some band of scouts, and fight the French and their Indians. I suppose they mean to drive us all out of the country, and take it for themselves?"
There was an emphatic nod in answer to his question, and then for a while the two sat staring at the fire, each busy with his thoughts.
For who could doubt that the total extermination of the British colonists was intended? The French were rapidly pushing south and east, and in front of them ran a swarm of their Indians, massacring and slaying, and steadily pushing back the British settlers. To understand the position of affairs, and the facts which had led up to the moment when Steve and his friends arrived at the camp where George Washington and his small army had settled themselves on the Alleghany Mountains, it would be well for the reader to study a map of North America, and trace for himself the possessions held by the French and the English. For it must be remembered that these two nations, each jealous of the other, and often at war with each other, had sent their settlers and pioneers to this huge continent of North America. To describe how the first of those settlers landed, how they fought their way from the coast and conquered the forests, would be to enter upon a subject which would need abundant space and more attention than can be given here. But the history of those days is filled to repletion with tales of gallant deeds, of perseverance against great suffering and difficulty, and of final and glorious success. It will be sufficient perhaps if we say, when dealing with the British colonies, that Quakers and Puritans, together with others from England and Wales, also Scotchmen and Irishmen, found their way to the eastern shores of North America, and having dealt with the Indians, finally founded states, thirteen in number, stretching from New England in the north to infant Georgia in the south.
Let the reader glance down the eastern coast of the map, and he will trace these thirteen States without difficulty, and will notice that, while each has easy access to the sea, where the coast naturally limits further extension in that direction, to the west there is a huge sweep of country running right across to the Pacific coast, but broken here and there by mountain and river and vast inland lakes. Then let him take those States in their order from the north, and ascertain what reason there was why each one should not extend to the west till her people flooded the whole continent.
It may be admitted at once that abundance of time was one of the main requirements for bringing about such a state of affairs, for colonies do not grow in a day, and putting aside all natural barriers, and those erected by the hostility of the old inhabitants, whom the colonists will in course of time drive from their own country, many, many years must pass before the tide of immigrants flows across the land. For those who come first naturally select suitable places nearest the coast, while those who come later settle within reach of their friends, exchanging commodities with them. Later arrivals are forced farther and farther away, till in time the settlements are found miles and miles from the coast. Look at North America to-day. She has added many states to those thirteen which existed in the days when Steve sat in the log hut with George Washington. Her people have overflowed the country, they have pushed the Red Indian back steadily, and to-day they swarm in almost every part. The virgin forest of that day, the haunt of the buffalo and the hunting grounds of the Indian, now resound to the clang of the hammer, to the crash of the train, and to the hum and roar of a thriving population. Thousands come to the land every year to swell the throng, and paucity of population is no longer a source of anxious thought for the governments of the various States.
But it was in the year 1756. All told, the colonists of those thirteen States did not exceed a million and a half, while each one of the States may be said to have been of the size of England. It will be realised at once that it was all that such a population could do to colonise the neighbourhood of the coast, and that if the western border was to extend, thousands must come out to the country. As a matter of fact, however, few though the colonists were, their farms extended a considerable distance from the coast, and save in the towns, where they lived close together, the settlers were separated by wide intervals. They placed their huts for the most part in the fertile valleys, clinging to the rivers, thus having at hand the means of getting their corn and produce to the coast. And slowly, as the land was taken up, settlers took their farms farther and farther away, till some barrier arrested further progress. Such a barrier existed, and a glance at the map will show the position of the Alleghany Mountains, extending from Pennsylvania down to Georgia. It was not, of course, an obstacle which could not be surmounted, but it was for all that an obstacle which turned the would-be farmer back, for the simple reason that, with such a range stretching between him and the coast, there was no possibility of his getting his produce to market. Moreover, on the far side of that range Indians inhabited the forests, and they were an enemy to be reckoned with and feared.
Thus it happened that from Pennsylvania south to Georgia there was every inducement to the young colonies to be satisfied with what land they already possessed, while to the north, where the natural barrier of the Alleghany Mountains did not exist, there were other barriers, none the less formidable, which held the State of New York and those of New England in check. Stretching between them and the unknown west lay the country inhabited by the Iroquois, consisting of six nations of Indians who had banded themselves together for purposes of offence and defence, and who were friendly to our colonists. To think of snatching their hunting lands from them, was to think of a relentless and fearful war, which might damage the prosperity of the colonies. Farther north there ran the huge river St. Lawrence, with the French and their so-called Christian Indians for ever ready to sweep over the frontier.
It will be realized then, that there was reason why the young States should not extend, but in dealing with them, one must not forget the host of trappers and hunters belonging to each State, who, like the Indians, steadily and surely pushed on away from the settlers. For where there were villages there was little game, and it was upon the latter that they depended for a livelihood. And so it happened that, while the colonies proper came to an end at the slopes of the Alleghany mountains, the trappers clambered over the range, and descended into the country beyond. And in course of time, when their numbers had increased and they had driven the Indians back after many a battle, they too formed settlements, adventurous farmers joined them, cleared the forest, and lived the dual life of farmer and trapper. Then the restless spirit of the hunters took them on again, till the forests west of the mountains harboured many and many a gallant trapper, till their solitary log huts were seen in the valley of the Ohio, on the banks of the Monongahela, the Alleghany, and the Kenawha.
Those were the men who knew that Indians still existed, who hunted the bison and the bear, and fought the bloodthirsty native of the forests in his own manner and with bitter determination. It was these hardy fellows, men of Tom Mainwaring's stamp, trappers such as Jim and Mac and Pete, who carried old England's banner into new lands, and who were the very first to come in contact with the French and their Indians. Their occupation of this valley of the Ohio won claims for England which France could not deny and which we could not repudiate, and though up to this date the various States had for the most part stood aside, apathetically watching while these honest and brave pioneers were driven back, their huts fired and their people massacred, yet the time was now come when they and the Government in England were to recall the fact that this valley of the Ohio was ours by right of conquest, that it had been won by the toil and blood of the trappers.
There remains but one other point to explain with regard to the colonies. It may be asked why these million and a half souls looked on so calmly while the unfortunate pioneers and trappers were hunted and massacred, why they sat at home while the Indians swarmed to the western slopes of the Alleghanies and over the crest, slaughtering and destroying the settlements? It must be a matter for marvel that they remained for the most part inert and unshaken, even while the third line of defences was ravaged, and the bloody war brought to their very farms and mansions.
There were many reasons for this state of affairs, and it may be said of the Southern States that it was so long now since their fathers and their grandfathers had driven the redskins over the Alleghany Mountains that they had forgotten that the Indians existed. There were no longer raids in their direction, and no fear of massacre. Then again, those who managed the affairs of the scattered population of these various States were more than inclined to sink patriotism and all thought of their fellow-States in acrimonious discussions amongst themselves, in petty squabbles over some matter which was of the smallest actual importance, and in for ever harassing their governor. They fought amongst themselves, squabbled with their neighbours as to boundary lines, and wrangled while their countrymen were being massacred, and even their own security threatened.
In the north it was entirely different. The States of New York and New England had French and French Indians on their borders, and they had never forgotten the bitterness of former wars, nor did the ever-present fear of an incursion help to dull their memories. We shall see that it was to these Northern States in particular that we are indebted for men and money, and for the initiative which first roused the States to a sense of their duty, and the home Government to the need for a leader and active opposition to the aims of France.
Having given some idea of the thirteen States and their condition in and about the year 1756, let us turn to France and her possessions in North America. And perhaps it will be of interest to go as fully into this part as into that concerning our own colony. Let the reader run his finger from the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland along the northern shore of the St. Lawrence, and he will pass over the route which the gallant Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, followed in the years 1535-36, when on a voyage commissioned by Francis I. This bold sailor was the first known European to ascend the mighty St. Lawrence river, a river which is of huge proportions, and which is fed by the most gigantic reservoirs. Look at the five huge lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which cover a space larger than that covered by the whole of Great Britain, and consider that these five drain steadily into this St. Lawrence river, and you will perhaps have some idea of the vastness of this gigantic waterway.
This Jacques Cartier cast anchor off the Isle of Orleans, which he named the Isle of Bacchus, for it was well covered with vines, and lay near the river St. Croix, within sight of the position where the city of Quebec now stands. He met with a friendly reception from the natives, and afterwards sailed up the river to Montreal, where an Indian town was then situated. Having done more than any other white man was known to have done, he erected a cross at St. Croix, claimed the land for his master and for France, and duly returned home, having completed his second voyage to these parts, a voyage commissioned, as has been said, by Francis I., with the object of discovering a short route to the Indies and new countries not yet discovered and appropriated by the Spanish or the Portuguese.
Monsieur Roberval was the first lieutenant to take up his residence in the newly-found country. It is quite unnecessary to follow his unimportant doings there, or the fate of the immigrants who went to join him. But it may be stated that progress was exceptionally slow, that colonists were few and far between, and that for many years the French population of New France was extremely small. Sometimes the new possessions met with favour from the French court, and for a while a new impetus was given to colonising. And gradually the interior of the country was opened up, or rather, some superficial knowledge of it was gained from the reports of discoverers and hunters. For here, as in the Ohio valley, the chief inducement to the hardy pioneers to push on was the desire to obtain furs, for which there was always a ready sale.
But it must not be thought that their journeys took them so far that nothing more was left to discover. Other men of the same venturesome turn of mind were to appear upon the scene, Champlain amongst the most noteworthy. Then, too, we must direct our attention to Nova Scotia, the French Acadie, which attracted the eyes of the colonists in 1604. We find that expeditions landed here and founded settlements, and later we hear of gentlemen adventurers coming to this fertile Acadie, there to seek their fortunes. In course of time, too, to be precise, in the year 1625, Jesuit missionaries sailed for New France, and we find them hereafter dominating the affairs of the colony, ever pushing forward and boldly entering the country of the Indians. Indeed, the history of Canada is filled with accounts of these gallant missionaries, who struggled often alone into the forests, who were murdered and tortured by the redskins, and who yet pressed on, endeavouring always to bring the heathen Indian under the influence of their religion.
Cardinal Richelieu also appears upon the scene, the great Richelieu who dominated France, and we find him forming a trading company and arranging to send out artisans.
It is interesting at this time to remember that England had colonists at Massachusetts Bay, and that this country was ambitious of obtaining more lands, and even of ousting the French. Indeed, in the year 1628 Kirk appeared in the St. Lawrence off Quebec, and though he did not take the place, Champlain, then the governor, had the mortification of hearing that, in his descent of the river he had captured four armed vessels and eighteen transports, which were conveying those artisans whom the great Richelieu had selected. This was a serious set back to the colonists, and was increased tenfold in the following year, for Kirk again appeared upon the scene, and summoned Champlain to surrender. That was the first occasion when the broad banner of England floated over the fort of St. Louis, and the site whereon the city of Quebec now stands. However, on returning home, Kirk discovered that the war with France was at an end, and as a result the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye was signed, and Charles I. handed back to France her possessions on the St. Lawrence, and Port Royal, in Acadie.
During all these years the progress of New France had been slow, and on the mighty St. Lawrence her colonists were lost in the immensity of their new possessions. In Acadie they had fared little better, and though Port Royal was handed back to them and they enjoyed peaceful possession of the country, it was not for a great number of years, for our fleets captured the province in 1654, and in our hands it remained till 1667, when Charles II. gave it back to Louis XIV.
We pass over those years in Canada with the mention of few events, amongst the most important of which was the danger which the colonists now encountered from the Iroquois. They had a deadly feud with these men from France, and we hear of their canoes ascending the Richelieu and lying off Quebec itself, taunting the small garrison. These uneventful times, however, produced scores of gallant men desirous of pushing on into the mysterious west, and the names of Etienne Brulé and of Nicolet loom large in the list. For a while the invasion of the Iroquois kept these spirits close to the forts at Montreal and Quebec, but when the Indian trouble had subsided, the Mohawks having been dispersed, these gallant men pushed on again. They were found on the great lakes, and to north and south of them. Hunters pushed into the wilderness in search of skins, coureurs de bois, often the younger sons of men of position in France, blazed their tracks through the forests, intent upon discovery. And with one or other were to be found the ubiquitous priest, bolder and more persevering than any perhaps. The tales of these wanderers fill one with wonder and admiration, and the history of these years of discovery teach us that the French were wonderful hunters and explorers. They took to the forests as a duck does to water. Often enough they associated with wandering bands of Indians, learned their language and lived with them for months and even years at a time, dressing in their hunting costumes. The fascination of the wilderness cast such a spell over the colonists that at this period, when men were sorely needed in the settlements, when the hold which France had on her fine possessions was none of the securest, scarcely a young colonist, be he habitant or the son of a man of consequence, could be persuaded to remain. Threats of severe punishment could not keep them. They broke from home ties, took their ponderous muskets, their bullet and their powder pouches, and went off into the forests, content to hunt and wander into a country which was entirely strange, and to indulge in a life of freedom and adventure, where hardship was the order of the day, and where only the strongest and boldest survived.
But it must not be supposed that the governing powers at Quebec, in their endeavours to retain these young men, entirely muzzled the desire to make fresh discoveries. They fostered the idea, selected suitable men, and equipped expeditions. Frontenac, whose name has secured an honoured place in the history of Canada, sent Jolliet to find that great water of which the French had heard, though it had been but vaguely mentioned. This intrepid explorer finally launched his canoe on the waters of the giant Missipi (as it was then spelled), and with Marquette, a bold Jesuit, paddled down the stream. René Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle, completed this important work of exploration, and with Tonty and Father Membré sailed down the long stretches of the Mississippi till he reached the Gulf of Mexico. This momentous voyage opened the eyes of the French very wide indeed, for the travellers could tell of fertile lands stretching from the great lakes to the gulf in the south, and of a huge expanse of country which would give refuge one of these days to millions of wanderers pressed out of their own native lands by the overcrowding there. However, beyond building a few forts, nothing more of consequence was done till we arrive at a period in which New France, now generally styled Canada, made rapid strides under the able leadership of her governors and the careful attention of Louis Quatorze.
There were perhaps three thousand souls in the colony prior to this period, and it was obvious that many more were required if France was to retain her rights there. The astute young king was the first to recognise this, and we find him sending emigrants in large numbers, emigrants who had been carefully selected. They consisted of young men of the peasant class, called habitants, and of officers and younger sons, for the most part unmarried. Then ship loads of peasant girls and demoiselles were dispatched to the colony, and every inducement offered to these men and women to marry and settle down. Indeed, young men who failed to take notice of these inducements were harried and taxed till they fell in with the wishes of their king. In addition to these emigrants, men of some family were persuaded to go to the colony, and from these smaller "gentilhommes" a Canadian noblesse was formed, seigneurs were selected from amongst them, and a form of feudal life commenced in the backwoods. The seigneur had a huge grant of uncleared forest, he built his log hut or cabin, and a rough fort to protect him against the Indians. And about this fort gathered his habitants, tilling the land he allotted them, and paying their rent in kind, a portion of corn, a few bear skins, fresh salmon from the lake, or other commodities. Allegiance they gave to their seigneur for the simple reason that these seigneuries were scattered and widely separated, and self-support was their only policy, for otherwise they would have fallen victims to the first redskin marauders.
And thus we find the possessions of France slowly being peopled, till in the year when Steve and his friends reached the Alleghanies, the colonists numbered some 60,000 souls, exclusive of some ten thousand living in Acadie, once French but now English, though the habitant who had filled that smiling land was French by birth and intensely French in thought and sympathy. We find Cape Breton, an island just north of Nova Scotia, a possession of France, with the formidable fortress of Louisbourg situated upon it, and its ramparts bristling with cannon. Hunters and coureurs de bois had sailed across the lakes, and knew every foot of their shores, while soldiers and agents of France had built forts and trading posts in numerous places, had erected stockades at certain points on the Mississippi, and were slowly progressing in a scheme which promised soon to allow the men descending this mighty Mississippi to join hands with men of their blood at New Orleans, settled some time ago by the French.
Look again at the map for a moment, and see what such a line of forts meant. It cut the northern continent into two unequal parts, leaving France the major portion lying to the west, as well as that wide tract between the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. It was this portion, commencing with the valley of the Ohio, which they determined to occupy, despite the fact that our hunters and pioneers had penetrated its forests years before, and it was this same valley in which their own Indians were now camping, having harried and massacred far and wide, and set fire to all the settlements not only in the valley, but as far as and beyond the Alleghany range.
History repeats itself, and it is strange to consider that the constant forward movement of these persevering French was copied years afterwards by those gallant men who opened up the great west of North America to the thirteen colonies, that the work of exploration carried on in Canada by hunters, by coureurs de bois, and by the restless and bold spirits of the young noblesse was repeated on the far side of the Alleghanies. Not that our trappers, even at this date, when the French were doing their utmost to oust the British from the Ohio valley, had been backward. They had done much, and a glance at the map will show the reader that they had a station on Lake Ontario, Oswego by name, which was well in advance of their own frontiers, and which, in fact, was a bitter thorn in the side of the French. But adventurous though our trappers were, they had not penetrated so far perhaps into the wilderness as had the French, for the simple reason no doubt that ways of communication were less frequent and difficult to come across. A French trapper might enter his canoe at Quebec, and there was water to take him hundreds of miles into the heart of the country, to the farthest bays and creeks of the giant lakes. True, there were mighty falls, as witness those of Niagara, but a canoe could be carried. There were "portages" where canoes must be taken from the water, the stores piled upon the backs of willing Indians, and the whole outfit carried to some point above the falls. But these did not altogether bar the great waterways, and on this account prospecting and exploration was easier for the French. And thus we find them at the period of this impending conflict masters of the St. Lawrence, with strong places at Quebec, Montreal, Niagara, and Frontenac, not to mention the huge and elaborately defended fortress at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. We hear of their soldiers and trappers, with thousands of Indians south of the great lakes, of their forts on the Mississippi and on the river Richelieu and on Lake Champlain. In fact, these energetic men, in spite of their paucity of numbers, were swiftly surrounding the British, cutting off the thirteen States from the smiling interior of America, and aiming no doubt at their final extermination. We shall see, however, that even an apathetic people may at last see their danger, and that England was not to be so easily driven from a colony which had been founded by her hardy sons.